TheUnited States district courts are thetrial courts of theU.S. federal judiciary. There is one district court for eachfederal judicial district. Each district covers oneU.S. state or a portion of a state. There is at least onefederal courthouse in each district, and many districts have more than one. District court decisions are appealed to theU.S. court of appeals for the circuit in which they reside, except for certain specialized cases that are appealed to theU.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit or directly to theU.S. Supreme Court.
District courts are courts oflaw,equity, andadmiralty, and can hear bothcivil andcriminal cases. But unlikeU.S. state courts, federal district courts are courts oflimited jurisdiction, and can only hear cases that involve disputes betweenresidents of different states,questions of federal law, or federal crimes.
Unlike the U.S. Supreme Court, which was expressly established byArticle III of the Constitution, the district courts were established by Congress pursuant to authority delegated by Article III[note 1] through the enacting of a federal statute, theJudiciary Act of 1789. There is no constitutional requirement that district courts exist at all.[1]
During the drafting and ratification of theConstitution, some opponents of a strong federal judiciary argued that the federal courts ought to be limited to the Supreme Court, which would hear appeals only from state courts. In other words, the state courts would be treated asfederal tribunals under Article I of the Constitution for the purpose of hearing disputes under federal law, but their judges would not become officers of the federal government.[1]Edward Carrington advocated this position in a letter toJames Madison, and it was also discussed byAlexander Hamilton inFederalist No. 81.[1] However, this view did not prevail, and the first Congress created the district court system that is still in place today.[1] Pursuant to the Constitution, nonetheless,state courts retain the power ofconcurrent jurisdiction in most federal matters.[2]
When the Act was first passed, there were thirteen districts created among the eleven states which had ratified the Constitution by that point. When North Carolina and Rhode Island voted to ratify, a district was created for each of them, bringing the number of districts to fifteen.
Theterritories (insular areas) ofGuam, theNorthern Mariana Islands, and theUnited States Virgin Islands each have one territorial court; these courts are called "district courts" and exercise the same jurisdiction as district courts,[3][4] but differ from district courts in that territorial courts areArticle IV courts, with judges who serve ten-year terms rather than thelifetime tenure of judges ofArticle III courts, such as the district court judges.[4]
American Samoa does not have a district court or a federal territorial court, and so federal matters there are sent to either theDistrict of Columbia orHawaii.[5] ThePhilippines were previously part of the United States but were never part of the U.S. federal court system.[6]
There are 89 districts in the 50 states, with a total of 94 districts including territories.[7] There is at least one judicial district for eachstate, theDistrict of Columbia, andPuerto Rico.
Each state has between one and four districts. For states with multiple districts, they are named geographically. States with two districts all give them either Northern–Southern or Western–Eastern designations. Most states with three districts add a Middle District, with two exceptions: Illinois has a Central District instead of a Middle District, and Oklahoma has Northern, Western, and Eastern Districts. Of the three states with four districts, New York and Texas use all four directional designations, while California has a Central District and no Western District.
There are other federal trial courts that have nationwidejurisdiction over certain types of cases, but the district court also hasconcurrent jurisdiction over many of those cases, and the district court is the only one with jurisdiction over civilian criminal cases.
TheUnited States Court of International Trade addresses cases involving international trade and customs issues. TheUnited States Court of Federal Claims hasexclusive jurisdiction over most claims for money damages against the United States, including disputes over federal contracts, unlawfultakings of private property by the federal government, and suits for injury on federal property or by a federal employee. TheUnited States Tax Court has jurisdiction over contested pre-assessment determinations oftaxes.
A judge of a United States district court is officially titled a "United States District Judge". Otherfederal judges, includingcircuit judges andSupreme Court justices, can also sit in a district court upon assignment by the chief judge of the circuit or by theChief Justice of the United States. The number of judges in each district court (and the structure of the judicial system generally) is set byCongress in theUnited States Code. Thepresident appoints the federal judges for terms of good behavior (subject to theadvice and consent of theSenate), so the nominees often share at least some of his or her convictions. In states represented by a senator of the president's party, the senator (or the more senior of them if both senators are of the president's party) has substantial input into the nominating process, and through a tradition known assenatorial courtesy can exercise an unofficial veto over a nominee unacceptable to the senator.
Federal magistrate judges are appointed by each district court pursuant to statute. They are appointed for an eight-year term and may be reappointed for additional eight-year terms. A magistrate judge may be removed "for incompetency, misconduct, neglect of duty, or physical or mental disability".[8] A magistrate judgeship may be a stepping stone to a district judgeship nomination.
District judges usually concentrate on managing their court's overall caseload, supervising trials, and writing opinions in response to important motions like the motion forsummary judgment. Since the 1960s, routine tasks like resolving discovery disputes can, in the district judge's discretion, be referred tomagistrate judges. Magistrate judges can also be requested to prepare reports and recommendations on contested matters for the district judge's consideration or, with the consent of all parties, to assume complete jurisdiction over a case including conducting the trial.
With the exception of theterritorial courts (Guam, theNorthern Mariana Islands, and theVirgin Islands), federal district judges areArticle III judges appointed for life, and can be removed involuntarily only when they violate the standard of "good behavior". The sole method of involuntary removal of a judge is throughimpeachment by theUnited States House of Representatives followed by a trial in theUnited States Senate and a conviction by a two-thirds vote. Otherwise, a judge, even if convicted of afelony criminal offense by a jury, is entitled to hold office until retirement or death. In the history of the United States, twelve judges have been impeached by the House, and seven have been removed following conviction in the Senate. (For a table that includes the twelve impeached judges, seeImpeachment in the United States.)
A judge who has reached the age of 65 (or has become disabled) may retire or elect to go onsenior status and keep working. Such senior judges are not counted in the quota of active judges for the district and do only whatever work they are assigned by the chief judge of the district, but they keep their offices (called "chambers") and staff, and many of them work full-time.
As of 2010, there were 678 authorized district court judgeships.[9]
A federal judge is addressed in writing as "The Honorable John/Jane Doe" or "Hon. John/Jane Doe" and in speech as "Judge" or "Judge Doe" or, when presiding in court, "Your Honor".
Each district court appoints a clerk, who is responsible for overseeing filings made with the court, maintaining the court's records, processing fees, fines, and restitution, and managing the non-judicial work of the court, including information technology, budget, procurement, human resources, and financial. Clerks may appoint deputies, clerical assistants, and employees to carry out the work of the court. The clerk of each district court must reside in the district for which the clerk is appointed, except that the clerk of the District of Columbia and the clerk of the Southern District of New York may reside within twenty miles of their respective districts.
The Judiciary Act of 1789 authorized the Supreme Court and the judge of each U.S. District Court to appoint a clerk to assist with the administration of federal judicial business in those courts. The clerk for each district court was to also serve as clerk of the corresponding circuit court. The Judiciary Act required each clerk to issue the writs summoning jurors and "to record the decrees, judgments and determinations of the court of which he is clerk."
The Judicial Code (28 U.S.C. § 751) provides that the clerk is appointed, and may be removed, by the court. The clerk's duties are prescribed by the statute, by the court's customs and practices, and by policy established by theJudicial Conference of the United States. The clerk is appointed by order of the courten banc to serve the entire court. The role of the clerk and deputies or assistants should not be confused with the judges'law clerks, who assist the judges by conducting research and preparing drafts of opinions.
To be eligible to serve as a clerk, a person must have a minimum of 10 years of progressively responsible administrative experience in public service or business that provides a thorough understanding of organizational, procedural, and human aspects of managing an organization, and at least 3 of the 10 years must have been in a position of substantial management responsibility. An attorney may substitute the active practice of law on a year-for-year basis for the management or administrative experience requirement. Clerks do not have to be licensed attorneys, but some courts specify that a law degree is a preference for employment.
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Unlike some state courts, the power of federal courts to hear cases and controversies is strictly limited. Federal courts may not decide every case that happens to come before them. In order for a district court to entertain a lawsuit, Congress must first grant the court subject matter jurisdiction over the type of dispute in question.
The district courts exercise original jurisdiction over—that is, they are empowered to conduct trials in—the following types of cases:
For most of these cases, the jurisdiction of the federal district courts is concurrent with that of the state courts. In other words, a plaintiff can choose to bring these cases in either a federal district court or a state court. Congress has established a procedure whereby a party, typically the defendant, can "remove" a case from state court to federal court, provided that the federal court also has original jurisdiction over the matter (meaning that the case could have been filed in federal court initially).[16] If the party that initially filed the case in state court believes that removal was improper, that party can ask the district court to "remand" the case to the state court system. For certain matters, such as patent and copyright infringement disputes and prosecutions for federal crimes, the jurisdiction of the district courts is exclusive of that of the state courts, meaning that only federal courts can hear those cases.[note 2]
In addition to their original jurisdiction, the district courts have appellate jurisdiction over a very limited class of judgments, orders, and decrees.[17]
In order to represent a party in a case in a district court, a person must be anattorney at law and generally must be admitted to the bar of that particular court. The United States usually does not have a separatebar examination for federal practice (except with respect to patent practice before theUnited States Patent and Trademark Office).Admission to the bar of a district court is generally available to any attorney who is admitted to practice law in the state where the district court sits.[note 3]
56 districts (around 60% of all district courts) require an attorney to be admitted to practice in the state where the district court sits. The other 39 districts (around 40% of all district courts) extend admission to certain lawyers admitted in other states, although conditions vary from court to court. For example, the district courts inNew York City (Southern District of New York andEastern District of New York) extend admission to attorneys admitted to the bar in Connecticut or Vermont and to the district court in that state, but otherwise require attorneys to be admitted to the New York bar. Only 13 districts extend admission to attorneys admitted to any U.S. state bar.[18][19]
The attorney generally submits an application with a fee and takes the oath of admission. Local practice varies as to whether the oath is given in writing or in open court before a judge of the district. A "sponsor" admitted to the court's bar is often required. Several district courts require attorneys seeking admission to their bars to take an additional bar examination on federal law, including the following: the Southern District of Ohio,[20] the Northern District of Florida,[21] and theDistrict of Puerto Rico.[22]
Pro hac vice admission is also available in most federal district courts on a case-by-case basis. Most district courts requirepro hac vice attorneys to associate with an attorney admitted to practice before the court.[18]
Generally, a final ruling by a district court in either a civil or a criminal case can be appealed to theUnited States court of appeals in thefederal judicial circuit in which the district court is located, except that some district court rulings involving patents and certain other specialized matters must be appealed instead to theUnited States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, and in a very few cases the appeal may be taken directly to theUnited States Supreme Court.
TheCentral District of California is the largest federal district by population;[23] it includes all five counties that make upGreater Los Angeles. By contrast,New York City and the surroundingmetropolitan area are divided between theSouthern District of New York (which includesManhattan,The Bronx andWestchester County) and theEastern District of New York (which includesBrooklyn,Queens,Staten Island,Nassau County andSuffolk County). New York suburbs inConnecticut andNew Jersey are covered by theDistrict of Connecticut andDistrict of New Jersey, respectively.
The Southern District of New York and the Central District of California are the largest federal districts by number of judges, with 28 judges each.[24]
In 2007, the busiest district courts in terms of criminal federal felony filings were theDistrict of New Mexico,Western District of Texas,Southern District of Texas, and theDistrict of Arizona. These four districts all share theborder with Mexico.[25] A crackdown on illegal immigration resulted in 75 percent of the criminal cases filed in the 94 district courts in 2007 being filed in these four districts and the other district that borders Mexico, theSouthern District of California.[26] The busiest patent litigation court is theUnited States District Court for the Eastern District of Texas, with the most patent lawsuits filed there nearly every year.[27]
Most extinct district courts have disappeared by being divided into smaller districts. The following courts were subdivided out of existence:Alabama,Arkansas,California,Florida,Georgia,Illinois,Indiana,Iowa,Kentucky,Louisiana,Michigan,Mississippi,Missouri,New York,North Carolina,Ohio,Pennsylvania,Tennessee,Texas,Virginia,Washington,West Virginia,Wisconsin.
On rare occasions, an extinct district court was extinguished by merging it with other district courts. In every case except one, this has restored a district court that had been subdivided:
There are a few additional extinct district courts that fall into neither of the above two patterns.
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| Note | American Samoa does not have a district court or federal territorial court; federal matters there go to theDistrict of Columbia,Hawaii, orits own Supreme Court. |
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