Tripoli,[a] historically known asTripoli-of-the-West,[b] is thecapital and largest city ofLibya, with a population of about 1.317 million people in 2021.[4] It is located in the northwest of Libya on the edge of thedesert, on a point of rocky land projecting into theMediterranean Sea and forming a bay. It includes theport of Tripoli and the country's largest commercial and manufacturing center. It is also the site of theUniversity of Tripoli.
Tripoli was founded in the7th century BC by thePhoenicians, who gave it theLibyco-Berber nameOyat (Punic:𐤅𐤉𐤏𐤕,romanized: Wyʿt),[5][6] before passing into the hands of the Greek rulers ofCyrenaica asOea (Ancient Greek:Ὀία,romanized: Oía).[7] Due to the city's long history, there are many sites of archeological significance in Tripoli.Tripoli may also refer to thesha'biyah (top-level administrative division in the Libyan system), theTripoli District.
In theArab world, Tripoli is also known as "Tripoli-of-the-West" (Arabic:طرابلس الغرب,romanized: Ṭarābulus al-Gharb), to distinguish it fromTripoli, Lebanon, known in Arabic asṬarābulus ash-Shām (طرابلس الشام), meaning 'Tripoli of theLevant'. It is affectionately called "The Mermaid of the Mediterranean" (Arabic:عروسة البحر,romanized: ʿArūsat al-Baḥr,lit. 'bride of the sea'), describing its turquoise waters and whitewashed buildings.
The name derives fromAncient GreekTrípolis (Τρίπολις), fromΤρεις Πόλεις,Treis Póleis,lit.'three cities' – referring to Oea,Sabratha andLeptis Magna. The city of Oea was the only one of the three to survive antiquity, and became known as Tripoli, within a wider region known asTripolitania. Neighboring Sabratha was sometimes referred to by sailors as "Old Tripoli".
The city was founded in the 7th century BC by thePhoenicians, who gave it theLibyco-Berber name Oyat (Punic: 𐤅𐤉𐤏𐤕,wyʿt),[5][6] suggesting that the city may have been built upon an existing nativeBerber city.[citation needed] The Phoenicians were probably attracted to the site by its natural harbor, flanked on the western shore by the small, easily defensiblepeninsula, on which they established their colony. The city then passed into the hands of the Greek rulers ofCyrenaica asOea (Greek: Ὀία,Oía). Cyrene was a colony on the North African shore, a bit east of Tambroli and halfway toEgypt. TheCarthaginians later wrested it again from theGreeks.
By the later half of the 2nd century BC, it belonged to theRomans, who included it in their province ofAfrica, and gave it the name of "Regio Syrtica". Around the beginning of the 3rd centuryAD, it became known as theRegio Tripolitana, meaning "region of the three cities", namely Oea (i.e., modern Tripoli),Sabratha andLeptis Magna. It was probably raised to the rank of a separate province bySeptimius Severus, who was a native ofLeptis Magna.
In spite of centuries of Roman habitation, the only visible Roman remains, apart from scatteredcolumns andcapitals (usually integrated in later buildings), is the Arch ofMarcus Aurelius from the 2nd century AD. The fact that Tripoli has been continuously inhabited, unlikee.g., Sabratha and Leptis Magna, has meant that the inhabitants have either quarried material from older buildings (destroying them in the process) or built on top of them, burying them beneath the streets, where they remain largely unexcavated.
There is evidence to suggest that the Tripolitania region was in some economic decline during the 5th and 6th centuries, in part due to the political unrest spreading across the Mediterranean world in the wake of the collapse of theWestern Roman Empire, as well as pressure from the invadingVandals. It is recorded byIbn Abd al-Hakam that during the siege of Tripoli by a general of theRashidun Caliphate namedAmr ibn al-As, seven of his soldiers from the clan of Madhlij, sub branch ofKinana, unintentionally found a section on the western side of Tripoli beach that was not walled during their hunting routine.[8] Those seven soldiers then managed to infiltrate through this way without being detected by the city guards, then managed to incite a riot within the city while shouting Takbir, causing the confused Byzantine garrison soldiers to think the Muslim forces were already inside in the city and flee towards their ship leaving Tripoli, thus allowing Amr to subdue the city easily.[8]
In 1510, the city was conquered byPedro Navarro, Count of Oliveto for Spain. In 1530, it was assigned together with Malta to theKnights of St. John, who had been expelled by theOttoman Turks from their stronghold on the island ofRhodes.[9] Finding themselves in hostile territory, the Knights reinforced the city walls and built defenses. Though built on top of older buildings (possibly including a Roman public bath), much of the earliest defensive structures of the Tripoli castle (or "Assaraya al-Hamra",i.e., the "Red Castle") are attributed to the Knights of St John.
Having previously combatedpiracy from their base onRhodes, the Knights were given charge of the city to prevent it from being retaken byBarbary pirates. The disruption the pirates caused to the Christian shipping lanes in theMediterranean had been one of the main incentives for the Spanish conquest of the city.
The knights held the city until theSiege of Tripoli in 1551 and their surrender to theOttomans, led by the Muslim Turkish commanderTurgut Reis.[10] Turgut Reis served as pasha of Tripoli. During his rule, he adorned and built up the city, making it one of the most impressive cities along the North African Coast.[11] Turgut was buried in Tripoli after his death in 1565. His body was taken fromMalta, where he had fallen duringthe Ottoman siege of the island, to a tomb in theSidi Darghut Mosque which he had established close to his palace in Tripoli. The palace has since disappeared (supposedly it was situated between the so-called "Ottoman prison" and theArch of Marcus Aurelius), but the mosque, along with his tomb, still stands, close to the Bab Al-Bahr gate.
After the capture by the Ottoman Turks, Tripoli once again became a base of operation for Barbary pirates. One of several Western attempts to dislodge them again was a Royal Navy attack underJohn Narborough in 1675, of which a vivid eye-witness account has survived.[12]
Effective Ottoman rule during this period (1551–1711) was often hampered by the localJanissary corps. Intended to function as enforcers of local administration, the captain of the Janissaries and his cronies were often thede facto rulers.
In 1711,Ahmed Karamanli, a Janissary officer of Turkish origin, killed the Ottoman governor, the "Pasha", and established himself as ruler of the Tripolitania region. By 1714, he had asserted a sort of semi-independence from the Ottoman Sultan, heralding in theKaramanli dynasty. The Pashas of Tripoli were expected to pay a regular tributary tax to the Sultan but were in all other aspects rulers of an independent kingdom. This order of things continued under the rule of his descendants, accompanied by the brazen piracy and blackmailing until 1835 when the Ottoman Empire took advantage of an internal struggle and re-established its authority.
The Ottoman province (vilayet) of Tripoli (including the dependentsanjak ofCyrenaica) lay along the southern shore of the Mediterranean betweenTunisia in the west andEgypt in the east. Besides the city itself, the area included Cyrenaica (the Barca plateau), the chain ofoases in the Aujila depression,Fezzan and the oases ofGhadames andGhat, separated by sandy and stony wastelands. A 16th century Chinese source mentioned Tripoli and described its agricultural and textile products.[13]
In the early part of the 19th century, the regency at Tripoli, owing to itspiratical practices, was twice involved in war with the United States. In May 1801, the pasha demanded an increase in the tribute ($83,000) which the U.S. government had been paying since 1796 for the protection of their commerce from piracy under the1796 Treaty with Tripoli. The demand was refused by third PresidentThomas Jefferson, and a naval force was sent from the United States to blockade Tripoli.
TheFirst Barbary War (1801–1805) dragged on for four years. In 1803, Tripolitan fighters captured the U.S. Navy heavy frigatePhiladelphia and took its commander, CaptainWilliam Bainbridge, and the entire crew as prisoners. This was after thePhiladelphia was run aground when the captain tried to navigate too close to the port of Tripoli. After several hours aground and Tripolitan gun boats firing upon thePhiladelphia, though none ever struck thePhiladelphia, Captain Bainbridge made the decision to surrender. ThePhiladelphia was later turned against the Americans and anchored in Tripoli Harbor as a gun battery while her officers and crew were held prisoners in Tripoli. The following year, U.S. Navy LieutenantStephen Decatur led a successful daring nighttime raid to retake and burn the warship rather than see it remain in enemy hands. Decatur's men set fire to thePhiladelphia and escaped.
A notable incident in the war was the expedition undertaken by diplomatic ConsulWilliam Eaton with the objective of replacing the pasha with an elder brother living in exile, who had promised to accede to all the wishes of the United States. Eaton, at the head of a mixed force of US Soldiers, Sailors, and Marines, along with Greek, Arab and Turkish mercenaries numbering approximately 500, marched across the Egyptian / Libyan desert fromAlexandria,Egypt and with the aid of three American warships, succeeded incapturing Derna. Soon afterward, on 3 June 1805, peace was concluded. The pasha ended his demands and received $60,000 as ransom for thePhiladelphia prisoners under the1805 Treaty with Tripoli.
In 1815, in consequence of further outrages and due to the humiliation of the earlier defeat, Captains Bainbridge andStephen Decatur, at the head of an American squadron, again visited Tripoli and forced the pasha to comply with the demands of the United States. SeeSecond Barbary War.
In 1835, the Ottomans took advantage of a local civil war to reassert their direct authority. After that date, Tripoli was under the direct control of theSublime Porte. Rebellions in 1842 and 1844 were unsuccessful. After theFrench occupation of Tunisia (1881), the Ottomans increased their garrison in Tripoli considerably.[clarification needed]
Italy had long claimed that Tripoli fell within its zone of influence and that Italy had the right to preserve order within the state.[14] Under the pretext of protecting its own citizens living in Tripoli from the Ottoman government, itdeclared war against the Ottomans on 29 September 1911, and announced its intention of annexing Tripoli. On 1 October 1911, a naval battle was fought atPrevesa, Greece, and three Ottoman vessels were destroyed.
By theTreaty of Lausanne, Italian sovereignty overTripolitania andCyrenaica was acknowledged by the Ottomans, although thecaliph was permitted to exercise religious authority. Italy officially granted autonomy after the war, but gradually occupied the region. Originally administered as part of a single colony, Tripoli and its surrounding province were a separate colony from 26 June 1927 to 3 December 1934, when all Italian possessions in North Africa were merged into one colony.[15] By 1938, Tripoli[16] had 108,240 inhabitants, including 39,096 Italians.[17]
Tripoli underwent a huge architectural and urbanistic improvement under Italian rule:[18] the first thing the Italians did was to create in the early 1920s a sewage system (that until then it lacked) and a modern hospital.
In the coast of the province was built in 1937–1938 a section of theLitoranea Balbia, a road that went from Tripoli and Tunisia's frontier to the border ofEgypt. Thecar tag for the Italian province of Tripoli was "TL".[19]
Furthermore, in 1927, the Italians founded theTripoli International Fair, with the goal of promoting Tripoli's economy. This is the oldest trade fair in Africa.[20] The so-calledFiera internazionale di Tripoli was one of the main international "Fairs" in the colonial world in the 1930s, and was internationally promoted together with theTripoli Grand Prix as a showcase ofItalian Libya.[21]
The Italians created theTripoli Grand Prix, an international motor racing event first held in 1925 on a racing circuit outside Tripoli. The Tripoli Grand Prix took place until 1940.[22] The first airport in Libya, theMellaha Air Base was built by theItalian Air Force in 1923 near the Tripoli racing circuit. The airport is currently calledMitiga International Airport.
Tripoli even had a railway station with somesmall railway connections to nearby cities, when in August 1941 the Italians started to build a new 1,040-kilometer (646-mile) railway (with a 1,435 mm (4 ft 8.5 in) gauge, like the one used in Egypt and Tunisia) between Tripoli andBenghazi. But the war stopped the construction the next year.
Tripoli was controlled by Italy until 1943 when the provinces ofTripolitania andCyrenaica were captured by Allied forces. The city fell to troops of the BritishEighth Army on 23 January 1943.[23] Tripoli was then governed by the British until independence in 1951. Under the terms of the1947 peace treaty with theAllies, Italy relinquished all claims to Libya.[24]
This sectionneeds expansion. You can help byadding to it.(February 2016)
ColonelMuammar Gaddafi became leader of Libya on 1 September 1969 after a successful coup d'état.[25]
On 15 April 1986,U.S. PresidentRonald Reagan ordered major bombing raids, dubbedOperation El Dorado Canyon, against Tripoli andBenghazi, killing 45 Libyan military and government personnel as well as 15 civilians. This strike followed US interception of telex messages from Libya's East Berlin embassy suggesting the involvement of Libyan leaderMuammar Gaddafi in abomb explosion on 5 April inWest Berlin's La Belle discothèque, a nightclub frequented by US servicemen. Among the alleged fatalities of the 15 April retaliatory attack by the United States was Gaddafi's adopted daughter,Hana Gaddafi.
TheUnited Nations sanctions against Libya imposed in April 1992 underSecurity Council Resolution 748 were lifted in September 2003, which increased traffic through the Port of Tripoli and through airports in Libya. This lifting of the resolution had a positive impact on the city's economy allowing for more goods to enter the city.
Front lines during the Battle of Tripoli (20–28 August 2011)
In February and March 2011, Tripoli witnessed intenseanti-government protests and violent government responses resulting in hundreds killed and wounded. The city'sGreen Square was the scene of some of the protests. The anti-Gaddafi protests were eventually crushed, and Tripoli was the site of pro-Gaddafi rallies.[26]
The city defenses loyal to Gaddafi included the military headquarters atBab al-Aziziyah (where Gaddafi's main residence was located) and theMitiga International Airport. At the latter, on 13 March, Ali Atiyya, a colonel of theLibyan Air Force, defected and joined the revolution.[27]
In late February, rebel forces took control ofZawiya, a city approximately 50 km (31 mi) to the west of Tripoli, thus increasing the threat to pro-Gaddafi forces in the capital. During the subsequentbattle of Zawiya, loyalist forces besieged the city and eventually recaptured it by 10 March.[28]
As the2011 military intervention in Libya commenced on 19 March to enforce a U.N. no-fly zone over the country, the city once again came under air attack. It was the second time that Tripoli was bombed since the 1986 U.S. airstrikes, and the second time since the 1986 airstrike that bombedBab al-Azizia, Gaddafi's heavily fortified compound.
In July and August, Libyan online revolutionary communities posted tweets and updates on attacks by rebel fighters on pro-government vehicles and checkpoints. In one such attack,Saif al-Islam Gaddafi andAbdullah Senussi were targets.[29] The government, however, denied revolutionary activity inside the capital.
Several months after the initial uprising, rebel forces in theNafusa Mountains advanced towards the coast,retaking Zawiya and reaching Tripoli on 21 August. On 21 August, the symbolic Green Square, immediately renamed Martyrs' Square by the rebels, was taken under rebel control and pro-Gaddafi posters were torn down and burned.[30]
In August and September 2014, Islamist armed groups extended their control of central Tripoli. TheHouse of Representatives parliament set up operations on a Greek car ferry inTobruk. A rivalNew General National Congress parliament continued to operate in Tripoli.[31][32]
Tripoli and its surrounding suburbs all lie within theTripoli sha'biyah (district). In accordance with Libya's formerJamahiriya political system, Tripoli comprises Local People's Congresses where, in theory, the city's population discuss different matters and elect their own people's committee; at present[when?] there are 29 Local People's Congresses. In reality, the former revolutionary committees severely limited the democratic process by closely supervising committee and congress elections at the branch and district levels of governments, Tripoli being no exception.
Tripoli is sometimes referred to as "thede jure capital of Libya" because none of the country's ministries are actually located in the capital. Even the former National General People's Congress was held annually in the city ofSirte rather than in Tripoli. As part of a radicaldecentralization program undertaken byGaddafi in September 1988, all General People's Committee secretariats (ministries), except those responsible for foreign liaison (foreign policy andinternational relations) and information, were moved outside Tripoli. According to diplomatic sources, the former Secretariat for Economy and Trade was moved toBenghazi; the Secretariat for Health toKufra; and the remainder, excepting one, to Sirte,Muammar Gaddafi's birthplace. In early 1993 it was announced that the Secretariat for Foreign Liaison and International Co-operation was to be moved toRa's Lanuf. In October 2011, Libya fell to TheNational Transitional Council (N.T.C.), which took full control, abolishing the Gaddafi-era system of national and local government.
Satellite image of central TripoliAstronaut view of Tripoli
Tripoli lies at the western extremity of Libya close to the Tunisian border, on the continent of Africa. Over a thousand kilometers (621 miles) separates Tripoli from Libya's second largest city, Benghazi. Coastaloases alternate with sandy areas andlagoons along the shores ofTripolitania for more than 300 km (190 mi). The city lies about 70 kilometers north from theNafusa Mountains, the source of seasonal rivers like Wadi Mejenin, which has adam to collect seasonal water flows.
Until 2007, the "Sha'biyah" included the city, its suburbs and their immediate surroundings. In older administrative systems and throughout history, there existed a province ("muhafazah"), state ("wilayah") or city-state with a much larger area (though not constant boundaries), which is sometimes mistakenly referred to as Tripoli but more appropriately should be calledTripolitania.
As a District, Tripoli borders the following districts:
Tripoli has ahot semi-arid climate (Köppen:BSh)[34] with hot and dry, prolonged summers and relatively wet mild winters. Although virtually rainless, summers are hot and muggy with temperatures that often exceed 38 °C (100 °F); average July temperatures are between 22 and 33 °C (72 and 91 °F). In December, temperatures have reached as low as 0 °C (32 °F), but the average remains at between 9 and 18 °C (48 and 64 °F). The average annual rainfall is less than 400 millimeters (16 inches). Snowfall has occurred in past years.[35]
The rainfall can be very erratic. Epic floods in 1945 left Tripoli underwater for several days, but two years later an unprecedenteddrought caused the loss of thousands of head of cattle. Deficiency in rainfall is no doubt reflected in an absence of permanent rivers or streams in the city as is indeed true throughout the entire country. The allocation of limited water is considered of sufficient importance to warrant the existence of the Secretariat of Dams and Water Resources, and damaging a source of water can be penalized by a heavy fine or imprisonment.[36]
TheGreat Manmade River, a network of pipelines that transport water from the desert to the coastal cities, supplies Tripoli with its water.[37] The grand scheme was initiated by Gaddafi in 1982.[citation needed]
Martyrs' Square, located near the waterfront is scattered withpalm trees, the most abundant plant used for landscaping in the city. TheTripoli Zoo, located south of the city center, is a large reserve of plants, trees and open green spaces and was the country's biggest zoo.[citation needed] The zoo was forced to shut for safety reasons due to theLibyan Civil War, with many animals becoming more and more traumatised and distressed. After the overthrow ofMuammar Gaddafi, the BBC published a short news film detailing the problems the zoo now faced, from a lack of money to feed the animals, to a fragile security system. The animals, the BBC said, were recovering slowly and returning to normal.[38]
Climate data for Tripoli (1961–1990, extremes 1944–1993)
A 2019 paper published inPLOS One estimated that underRepresentative Concentration Pathway 4.5, a "moderate" scenario ofclimate change where global warming reaches ~2.5–3 °C (4.5–5.4 °F) by 2100, the climate of Tripoli in the year 2050 would most closely resemble the current climate ofTaiz. The annual temperature would increase by 1.9 °C (3.4 °F), and the temperature of the warmest month by 3.1 °C (5.6 °F), while the temperature of the coldest month would increase by 0.3 °C (0.54 °F).[41][42] According toClimate Action Tracker, the current warming trajectory appears consistent with 2.7 °C (4.9 °F), which closely matches RCP 4.5.[43]
Tripoli's central business district, where many Libyan and international companies have offices.
Tripoli is one of the main hubs of Libya's economy along withMisrata. It is the leading center ofbanking,finance andcommunication in the country and is one of the leadingcommercial andmanufacturing cities in Libya. Many of the country's largest corporations locate their headquarters and home offices in Tripoli as well as the majority of international companies.[citation needed]
Major manufactured goods includeprocessed food, textiles, construction materials, clothing and tobacco products.[citation needed] Since the lifting of sanctions against Libya in 1999 and again in 2003, Tripoli has seen a rise in foreign investment as well as an increase in tourism. Increased traffic has also been recorded in the city's port as well as Libya's main international airport,Tripoli International Airport.[citation needed]
The city is home to theTripoli International Fair, an international industrial, agricultural and commercial event located on Omar Muktar Avenue. One of the active members of the Global Association of the Exhibition Industry (UFI), located in the French capital Paris, the international fair is organized annually and takes place from 2–12 April. Participation averages around 30 countries as well as more than 2000 companies and organizations.[44]
Since the rise intourism and influx of foreign visitors, there has been an increased demand for hotels in the city. To cater for these increased demands, theCorinthia Bab Africa Hotel located in the central business district was constructed in 2003 and is the largest hotel in Libya. Other high end hotels in Tripoli include theAl Waddan Intercontinental and the Tripoli Radisson Blu Hotel as well as others.[45]
Tripoli's Old City (el-Madina el-Qadima), situated in the city center, is the main historic quarter and an important tourist attraction.
The city's old town, theMedina, mostly took on its current form and appearance during the Ottoman period (16th century and after) and in particular during the period of Karamanli rule.[50][51]: 383 Many ancient Roman columns can be found re-used in various historical buildings in the city.[52]
The city walls were rebuilt and modified many times from the Roman period up to the Ottoman period.[53] Their final form, which determined the overall pentagonal layout of the Medina today, dates from 16th century, when the Ottomans refortified the town.[51]: 389 The city historically had at least three gates: Bab Hawwara to the southeast (probably Bab al-Mensha today), Bab Zenata (originally Bab al-Ashdar) to the west, and Bab al-Bahr to the north (close to the sea).[51]: 386–387 [53] Following later demolitions, what remains of the walls today are a section along the southwest flank of the Medina and another section to the southeast.[53]
The earliest recorded madrasa in the city was the al-Mustansiriyya Madrasa built between 1257 and 1260, but it has not survived.[53] Today, the Madrasa of Uthman Pasha (1654) is one of the most notable preserved examples of this type of building. Its main component is a square courtyard surrounded by vaulted galleries and small rooms where students lived. Attached to the northeast corner of the building are two square domed chambers, with the smaller one serving as a mosque and the larger one housing the tombs of Uthman Pasha and others.[53]
Of the manyhammams (bathhouses) that once existed in the city, only three notable examples remain today: the Hammam al-Kabir ("Great Bath"), of which only a large domed chamber survives, the Hammam al-Hilqa, which was still in use in the late 20th century, and theHammam of Darghut Pasha, built in the 17th century next to the mosque of the same name.[53]
The House of Karamanli, or al-Qaramanli House, was built in 1750, during the reign of Ali Pasha Al-Qaramanli, and was used by Yousuf Pasha until his death.[56]
The Medina also preserves urbancaravanserais (funduq in Arabic, plural:fanadiq) from the Ottoman period. These generally consist of a two-storey building centered around a courtyard. The first floor was usually used for storage while the second floor was for shops.[53] The historic houses in the city also have a similar form, with multiple stories and an internal courtyard. They are roofed with vaults or flat wooden roofs. Their decoration can consist ofcarved stucco andtilework.[53]
A clock tower, 18 meters tall, was built in 1866–70 by the Ottoman governor and is still one of the city's landmarks.[57][58]
Under Italian colonial rule, various buildings were constructed in anItalianate style.[52] These include, among others, theGalleria De Bono. TheTripoli Cathedral (now a mosque) was also built in this period.[59] There are a number of buildings that were constructed by the Italian colonial rulers and later demolished under Gaddafi. They included the Royal Miramare Theatre, next to theRed Castle, and Tripoli Railway Central Station.[citation needed]
TheRed Castle of Tripoli (Assaraya al-Hamra), a vast palace complex with numerous courtyards, dominates the city skyline and is located on the outskirts of the Medina. There are some classical statues and fountains from theOttoman period scattered around the castle. It houses theRed Castle Museum.
The largest university in Tripoli, theUniversity of Tripoli, is a public university providing free education to the city's inhabitants. Private universities and colleges have also begun to crop up in the last few years.
In July 2014, the Tripoli international Airport was destroyed, following theBattle of Tripoli Airport, whenZintani militias in charge of security were attacked by Islamist militias of the GNC, code naming the operation 'Libya Dawn' also known as "Libya Dawn Militias", led by Misurati militia general Salah Badi. The event happened after secular Zintani militias were accused with claims of smuggling drugs, alcohol and illegal items, known to have past ties with the Gaddafi Regime. Libya's Mufti Sadiq al Ghariani has praised the Libya Dawn Operation.
The result of the battle for Tripoli's central airport was its complete destruction with 90% of the facilities incapacitated, or burned down with an unknown estimate Billions of dollars in Damage, with another 10 or so planes destroyed. The airport was shelled withGrad rockets with reports of theAir Traffic Control tower completely destroyed, including the main reception building completely wrecked. Surrounding civilian residential areas and infrastructure, of which include Bridges, Electricity equipment, water equipment, and roads were also damaged in the fighting. Oil storage tankers containing large reserves of Kerosene fuels, gases and related chemicals were burnt and large plumes of smoke rose into the air.
Reconstruction efforts are underway with the GNA giving a contract amounting to $78 million to an Italian firm 'Emaco Group' or "Aeneas Consorzio", to rebuild the destroyed facilities. All flights have been diverted to ex-military base known asMitiga International Airport as of 2017.
Tripoli is the interim destination of arailway fromSirte under construction in 2007.[61]
The An-Naga mosque is a 1610 reconstruction of a 10th-century mosque, it has original richly decorated Roman capitals crowning the forest of columns in its multi-domed hall.[62]
The oldTripoli Cathedral (now a mosque) and the formerFIAT center (Algeria Square) during the 1960s
^Jones, Daniel (2003) [1917], Peter Roach; James Hartmann; Jane Setter (eds.),English Pronouncing Dictionary, Cambridge University Press,ISBN3-12-539683-2
^Britannica,Tripoli, britannica.com, USA, accessed on 7 July 2019
^Reynolds, Clark G. (1974).Command of the Sea – The History and Strategy of Maritime Empires. Morrow. pp. 120–121.ISBN978-0-688-00267-1.Ottomans extended their western maritime frontier across North Africa under the naval command of another Greek Moslem, Torghoud (or Dragut), who succeeded Barbarossa upon the latter's death in 1546.
^The Diary ofHenry Teonge Chaplain on Board HM's Ships Assistance, Bristol and Royal Oak 1675–1679. The Broadway Travellers. Edited by Sir E. Denison Ross and Eileen Power. London: Routledge, [1927] 2005.ISBN978-0-415-34477-7.
^"Klimatafel von Tripolis (Flugh.) / Libyen"(PDF).Baseline climate means (1961–1990) from stations all over the world (in German). Deutscher Wetterdienst. Retrieved28 March 2016.
^abcdefghijWarfelli, Muhammad (1976). "The Old City of Tripoli".Some Islamic Sites in Libya: Tripoli, Ajdabiyah and Ujlah. Art and Archeology Research Papers. Department of Antiquities, Tripoli. pp. 5–7.
Nora Lafi (2002).Une ville du Maghreb entre Ancien Régime et réformes ottomanes. Genèse des institutions municipales à Tripoli de Barbarie (1795–1911). Paris: L'Harmattan. 305 p.Amamzon.fr.
Miss Tully (1816)Letters written during a ten-year's residence at the Court of Tripoli, 1783–1795, with a new Introduction by Caroline Stone. (Hardinge Simpole, 2008).Hardinge Simpole – Travellers in the Wider Levant Series.
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