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Trial and error is a fundamental method ofproblem-solving[1] characterized by repeated, varied attempts which are continued until success,[2] or until the practicer stops trying.
According toW.H. Thorpe, the term wasdevised byC. Lloyd Morgan (1852–1936) after trying out similar phrases "trial and failure" and "trial and practice".[3] UnderMorgan's Canon,animal behaviour should be explained in the simplest possible way. Where behavior seems to imply higher mental processes, it might be explained by trial-and-error learning. An example is a skillful way in which his terrier Tony opened the garden gate, easily misunderstood as an insightful act by someone seeing the final behavior. Lloyd Morgan, however, had watched and recorded the series of approximations by which the dog had gradually learned the response, and could demonstrate that no insight was required to explain it.
Edward Lee Thorndike was the initiator of the theory of trial and error learning based on the findings he showed how to manage a trial-and-error experiment in the laboratory. In his famous experiment, a cat was placed in a series of puzzle boxes in order to study thelaw of effect in learning.[4] He plotted to learn curves which recorded the timing for each trial. Thorndike's key observation was that learning was promoted by positive results, which was later refined and extended byB. F. Skinner'soperant conditioning.[citation needed]
Trial and error is also a method of problem solving,repair, tuning, or obtainingknowledge. In the field ofcomputer science, the method is calledgenerate and test (brute force). Inelementary algebra, when solving equations, it is calledguess and check.[citation needed]
This approach can be seen as one of the two basic approaches to problem-solving, contrasted with an approach usinginsight andtheory. However, there are intermediate methods that, for example, use theory to guide the method, an approach known asguided empiricism.[citation needed]
This way of thinking has become a mainstay ofKarl Popper'scritical rationalism.[citation needed]
The trial and error approach is used most successfully with simple problems and in games, and it is often the last resort when no apparent rule applies. This does not mean that the approach is inherently careless, for an individual can be methodical in manipulating the variables in an attempt to sort through possibilities that could result in success. Nevertheless, this method is often used by people who have little knowledge in the problem area. The trial-and-error approach has been studied from its natural computational point of view[5]
Ashby (1960, section 11/5) offers three simple strategies for dealing with the same basic exercise-problem, which have very different efficiencies. Suppose a collection of 1000 on/off switches have to be set to a particular combination by random-based testing, where each test is expected to take one second. [This is also discussed in Traill (1978–2006, section C1.2]. The strategies are:
Note the tacit assumption here that no intelligence or insight is brought to bear on the problem. However, the existence of different available strategies allows us to consider a separate ("superior") domain of processing — a"meta-level" above the mechanics of switch handling — where the various available strategies can be randomly chosen. Once again this is "trial and error", but of a different type.
Ashby's book develops this "meta-level" idea, and extends it into a wholerecursive sequence of levels, successively above each other in a systematic hierarchy. On this basis, he argues that human intelligence emerges from such organization: relying heavily on trial-and-error (at least initially at each new stage), but emerging with what we would call "intelligence" at the end of it all. Thus presumably the topmost level of the hierarchy (at any stage) will still depend on simple trial-and-error.
Traill (1978–2006) suggests that this Ashby-hierarchy probably coincides withPiaget's well-known theory of developmental stages. [This work also discusses Ashby's 1000-switch example; see §C1.2]. After all, it is part of Piagetian doctrine that children learn first byactively doing in a more-or-less random way, and then hopefully learn from the consequences — which all has a certain resemblance to Ashby's random "trial-and-error".
Traill (2008,espec. Table "S" on p.31) followsJerne andPopper in seeing this strategy as probably underlyingall knowledge-gathering systems —at least in their initial phase.
Four such systems are identified:
Trial and error has a number of features:
It is possible to use trial and error to find all solutions or the best solution, when a testably finite number of possible solutions exist. To find all solutions, one simply makes a note and continues, rather than ending the process, when a solution is found, until all solutions have been tried. To find the best solution, one finds all solutions by the method just described and then comparatively evaluates them based upon some predefined set of criteria, the existence of which is a condition for the possibility of finding a best solution. (Also, when only one solution can exist, as in assembling a jigsaw puzzle, then any solution found is the only solution and so is necessarily the best.)
Trial and error has traditionally been the main method of finding new drugs, such asantibiotics.Chemists simply try chemicals at random until they find one with the desired effect. In a more sophisticated version, chemists select a narrow range of chemicals it is thought may have some effect using a technique calledstructure–activity relationship. (The latter case can be alternatively considered as a changing of the problem rather than of the solution strategy: instead of "What chemical will work well as an antibiotic?" the problem in the sophisticated approach is "Which, if any, of the chemicals in this narrow range will work well as an antibiotic?") The method is used widely in many disciplines, such aspolymer technology to find new polymer types or families.
Trial and error is also commonly seen in player responses tovideo games - when faced with an obstacle orboss, players often form a number of strategies to surpass the obstacle or defeat the boss, with each strategy being carried out before the player either succeeds or quits the game.
Sports teams also make use of trial and error to qualify for and/or progress through theplayoffs and win thechampionship, attempting different strategies, plays, lineups and formations in hopes of defeating each and every opponent along the way to victory. This is especially crucial inplayoff series in which multiple wins are required to advance, where a team that loses a game will have the opportunity to try new tactics to find a way to win, if they are not eliminated yet.
Thescientific method can be regarded as containing an element of trial and error in its formulation and testing of hypotheses. Also comparegenetic algorithms,simulated annealing andreinforcement learning – all varieties for search which apply the basic idea of trial and error.
Biological evolution can be considered as a form of trial and error.[6] Random mutations and sexual genetic variations can be viewed as trials and poor reproductive fitness, or lack of improved fitness, as the error. Thus after a long time 'knowledge' of well-adapted genomes accumulates simply by virtue of them beingable to reproduce.
Bogosort, a conceptual sorting algorithm (that is extremely inefficient and impractical), can be viewed as a trial and error approach to sorting a list. However, typical simple examples of bogosort do not track which orders of the list have been tried and may try the same order any number of times, which violates one of the basic principles of trial and error. Trial and error is actually more efficient and practical than bogosort; unlike bogosort, it is guaranteed to halt in finite time on a finite list, and might even be a reasonable way to sort extremely short lists under some conditions.
Jumping spiders of thegenusPortia use trial and error to find new tactics against unfamiliar prey or in unusual situations, and remember the new tactics.[7] Tests show thatPortia fimbriata andPortia labiata can use trial and error in an artificial environment, where the spider's objective is to cross a miniaturelagoon that is too wide for a simple jump, and must either jump then swim or only swim.[8][9]