Atorpedo cruiser is a type ofwarship that is armed primarily withtorpedoes. The major navies began building torpedo cruisers shortly after the invention of the locomotiveWhitehead torpedo in the 1860s. The development of the torpedo gave rise to theJeune École doctrine, which held that small warships armed with torpedoes could effectively and cheaply defeat much largerbattleships. Torpedo cruisers fell out of favor in most of thegreat power navies in the 1890s, though many other navies continued to acquire them into the early 1900s.
TheImperial Japanese Navy rebuilt twoKuma-classlight cruisers into torpedo cruisers duringWorld War II. Unlike the earlier vessels, these ships were intended to launch theirLong Lanceoxygen torpedoes at extreme range at night to surprise enemy warships. They never saw action in their intended role, however, and were quickly converted into troop transports.
The torpedo cruiser emerged from theJeune École, a strategic naval concept that argued that the largeironclad battleships then being built in Europe could be easily—and more importantly, cheaply—defeated by smalltorpedo-armed warships.[1] Innewly unified Germany, the new torpedo cruiser was embraced as a powerful weapon fora new navy which had no realblue-water traditions of shipbuilding or seafaring. Early German torpedo vessels were classified asavisos, the first beingSMS Zieten, launched in 1876.[2] She was initially armed with just two 380-millimetre (15 in) torpedo tubes, supplemented in 1878 by two 120 mm (4.7 in) guns and sixmachine guns.
The enthusiasm of the GermanKaiserliche Admiralität (Imperial Admiralty) was particularly marked during the tenure of GeneralLeo von Caprivi: a total of eight vessels were built, designed to serve with flotillas of smallertorpedo boats, and integrated into a defensive system of minefields and coastal artillery. The typical Germantorpedokreuzer came to be armed with a salvo of three torpedo tubes, one fixed in thebows and two on rotating mounts on either side of the hull. Their gun armament was relatively modest, with two medium-calibre weapons mounted fore and aft, and a number of smallerbroadside guns insponsons, designed primarily to defend against smaller attackers such as torpedo boats.
Concurrently with the German procurement ofZieten, the ItalianRegia Marina laid down the small cruiserPietro Micca in 1875, which was armed with a singletorpedo tube and two machine guns. TheRegia Marina built a further seventeen torpedo cruisers over fiveclasses over the course of the following twenty years.[3] Starting in 1879, theFrench Navy also began experimenting with the type, first with the cruiserMilan, before building a series of smaller torpedo avisos similar toZieten.[4] TheAustro-Hungarian Navy adopted a similar organization for the confined waters of theAdriatic Sea, with flotillas of torpedo boats grouped with torpedo cruisers, which were intended to defeat enemy battleships attacking the Austro-Hungarian coast.[5]
Two of the Austro-Hungarian torpedo cruisers,Panther andLeopard, were designed by the English naval architectSir William White, in the mid-1880s, when there was also a period of intense enthusiasm for the type at theBritish Admiralty. The one-offHMS Rattlesnake and the two ships of theScout class were promptly followed by numeroustorpedo gunboats, twoCurlew-class torpedo gunvessels, and the larger ships of theArcher class. The torpedo cruiser was seen as a ship which had the potential to become the worldwide mainstay of the fleet, combining the utility of thegunboat, the speed of adispatch vessel, and an attacking potential comparable to a largerironclad - "valuable during peace, and invaluable during war". However, theArcher class were badly over-gunned, which compromised their seaworthiness, and this damaged the type's reputation in Britain: the total order for the class was reduced from twenty ships to eight, and theRoyal Navy promptly abandoned the "torpedo cruiser" designation completely. This may have been an overreaction: sea-officers and ship-designers alike had urged the high command to simply reduce the gun armament, and White continued to produce what were effectively torpedo cruisers under different designations, the "third-class cruisers" of theBarracouta class and the largerMedea class, designated as "second-class protected cruisers".[6]
Torpedo cruisers were also procured early by a South American navy. TheChilean Navy ordered in the late 1880s, at the Laird Brothers shipyard, twoAlmirante Lynch-class torpedo gunboats,Almirante Lynch andAlmirante Condell, considered torpedo cruisers by some sources. These two ships would have a notable military success during theChilean Civil War of 1891, when they attacked and sunk the ironcladBlanco Encalada at theBattle of Caldera Bay. Then in 1896 she acquiredAlmirante Simpson. TheUnited States Navy was perhaps the only world navy which did not acquire any torpedo cruisers during this period - their procurement process for "Torpedo Cruiser No. 1" faltered due to unrealistically ambitious demands for high performance at low cost.[7]
By this point, however, the type was falling into disfavor. The publication ofAlfred Thayer Mahan's seminal work,The Influence of Sea Power upon History, in 1890 persuaded many experts to abandon theJeune École theory in favor of a fleet centered on powerful battleships.[8] Simultaneously, the first modernlight cruisers began to emerge. These ships, such as the GermanGazelle class, had the speed and torpedo armament of the earlier torpedo cruiser, but had a bigger hull which also allowed them to carry the gun armament and armor of a largerprotected cruisers.[9] Reflecting the change in thinking,Gazelle was designed as an enlargedtorpedokreuzer, combining the standard salvo of three torpedo tubes with a stronger gun armament, but the later ships of the same class were completed with just one fixed tube on either broadside, designed forline of battle tactics.
Another new type which threatened to usurp the torpedo cruiser's role was the "torpedo-boat destroyer", soon simply known as thedestroyer. The concept was influenced by the Spanish torpedo cruiserDestructor launched in 1886, but the subsequent British typepioneered in 1892 was smaller and faster, and was quickly adopted by all thegreat power navies of the 1890s.
However, ships of the Germantorpedokreuzer type continued to be built for a number of navies outside the great powers. The five vessels of the SwedishÖrnen class, which were built in the late 1890s, continued in service for many decades.[10] German shipyards also produced a number of torpedo cruisers for export to various foreign clients, withKrupp building three for theBrazilian Navy, one for theNational Navy of Uruguay, and two for the Ottoman NavyPeyk-i Şevket class, which were completed in 1907.[11]
One great power battlefleet which continued to utilize the torpedo cruiser was theImperial Russian Navy. They had employedtorpedo-armed warships since the 1870s, using "torpedo cutters" successfullyagainst the Ottomans in the 1870s, and launched the large "torpedo vessel"Vzryv in 1877, but their first ship specifically designated as a torpedo cruiser wasLeytenant Ilyin of 1886, followed by one sister ship in 1889, and in the 1890s by the six ships of theKazarskiy class and the more heavily-armedAbrek. These coexisted with conventional destroyers of the British type, and the onset of theRusso-Japanese War in 1904 prompted the construction of another twenty-four ships of the type - they were distinguished from contemporary destroyers by being slightly slower, but larger, more heavily-armed and more seaworthy. In order to accelerate production, most of them were built in collaboration with German shipyards, although theLeytenant Shestakov class were an entirely domestic design. All were similar in size and capabilities, typically with a speed of around 25 knots (46 km/h; 29 mph), three 457 mm (18.0 in) torpedo tubes, two 75 mm (3.0 in) guns, and four 57 mm (2.2 in) guns, and in a departure from the high-freeboard hullform of earlier torpedo cruisers, they were low-freeboard ships with a high forecastle: this style of hull had originated with late-nineteenth century cruisers, but was coming to be associated with destroyers (such as the BritishRiver class), and in 1907, as part of the review of naval thinking after theBattle of Tsushima, the Russians opted to reclassify all their torpedo cruisers as part of the destroyer fleet.
The Imperial Japanese Navy faced a numerical disadvantage against the United States Navy, and prior to thePacific War, they formulated a strategy of attacking the American fleets through ambush tactics, with heavy reliance on torpedoes. This plan principally emphasized submarines, but with the development of thetype 93 torpedo, there was a need for surface vessels that could accommodate such weapons. Three vessels of theKuma class of light cruisers were appointed for renovation, namelyKitakami,Ōi andKiso. Renovation ofŌi andKitakami began in 1941, with large-scale expansion of the hull, enlargement of the bridge, and removal of main and secondary artillery armaments. 61-centimetre (24 in) quadruple torpedo tubes were mounted on the vessel, with 5 mounts and 20 bays on each side, adding to a total of 10 mounts and 40 bays.Kiso was planned for modification, however the renovations never took place.Kitakami andŌi served only briefly in this new role, but were not used operationally before being converted into high speed troop transports in 1942.[12]