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Theatre of India is one of the most ancient forms of theatre and it features a detailed textual, sculptural, and dramatic effects which emerged in midfirst millennium BC.[1][2] Like in the areas ofmusic anddance, the Indian theatre is also defined by the dramaticperformance based on the concept ofNritya, which is aSanskrit word for drama but encompasses dramatic narrative, virtuosic dance, and music.[3][2] Historically, Indian theatre has exerted influence beyond its borders, reaching ancient China and other countries in the Far East.
With theIslamic conquests that began in the 10th and 11th centuries, theatre was discouraged or forbidden entirely.[4] Later, in an attempt to re-assert indigenous values and ideas, village theatre was encouraged across the subcontinent, developing in a large number of regional languages from the 15th to the 19th centuries.[5] Modern Indian theatre developed during theperiod of colonial rule under theBritish Empire, from the mid-19th century until the mid-20th.[6]
From the last half of the 19th century, theatres in India experienced a boost in numbers and practice. AfterIndian independence in 1947, theatres spread throughoutIndia as one of the means of entertainment. As a diverse, multi-cultural nation, the theatre of India cannot be reduced to a single, homogenoustrend.
In contemporary India, the major competition with its theatre is that represented by growingtelevision industries and the spread of films produced in the variousIndian film industries. Lack of finance is another major obstacle.
The history of the origin of theatre in India is highly controversial.
Early dating
According to some scholars, Indian theatre emerged in the 15th century BC. Vedic text such asRigveda provides evidence of drama plays being enacted duringYagya ceremonies. The dialogues mentioned in the texts range from one person monologues to three person dialogues such as the dialogue between Indra, Indrani and Vrishakapi. The dialogues are not only religious in their context but also secular. For instance, one rigvedic monologue is about a gambler whose life is ruined because of it and has estranged his wife caves dating back to the 3rd century BC[7] andKhandagiri caves from the 2nd century BC are the earliest examples of theatre architecture in India.[8]
The dating ofBhasa is controversial and ranges from preNatyashastra date of the 5th century BC[8] to the 2nd century AD. Bhasa according to some scholars preceded Natyashastra tradition.Nandikeshvara who wroteAbhinaya Darpanalit. 'The Mirror of Gesture' which itself was based on the abridgement of a long treatise of 400 sholakas called Bharatarnava,[9] according to some scholars seems to have preceded Bharata. The most concrete example of Nandikeshvara's teachings have survived thanks toBhasa.
Natyashastra, dated earliest to 200 BC, although mentions various teachers and call them acharya but doesn't name them, but it still ends with a reference to a lost treatise of dramatist Kohala.[10]
Late dating
According to scholars who insist on late dating, Sanskrit theatre emerged in the 2nd century BCE and flourished between the 1st century CE and the 10th, which was a period of relative peace in thehistory of India during which hundreds of plays were written.[11] Despite its name, Sanskrit theatre was not exclusively inSanskrit language. Other Indic languages collectively called asPrakrit were also used in addition to Sanskrit.[12]
The earliest-surviving fragments ofSanskrit drama date from the 1st century CE.[13] The wealth of archeological evidence from earlier periods offers no indication of the existence of a tradition of theatre.[14] TheVedas (the earliest Indian literature, from between 1500 and 600 BCE) contain no hint of it; although a small number of hymns are composed in a form ofdialogue), therituals of theVedic period do not appear to have developed into theatre.[14] TheMahābhāṣya byPatañjali contains the earliest reference to what may have been the seeds of Sanskrit drama.[15] This treatise ongrammar from 140 BCE provides a feasible date for the beginnings oftheatre in India.[15]
However, although there are no surviving fragments of any drama prior to this date, it is possible that early Buddhist literature provides the earliest evidence for the existence of Indian theater. ThePalisuttas (ranging in date from the 5th to 3rd centuries BCE) refer to the existence of troupes of actors (led by a chief actor), who performed dramas on a stage. It is indicated that these dramas incorporated dance, but were listed as a distinct form of performance, alongside dancing, singing, and story recitations.[16][note 1]
The major source of evidence for Sanskrit theatre isA Treatise on Theatre (Nātyaśāstra), a compendium whose date of composition is uncertain (estimates range from 200 BCE to 200 CE) and whose authorship is attributed toBharata Muni. TheTreatise is the most complete work of dramaturgy in the ancient world. It addresses acting, dance, music,dramatic construction, architecture,costuming,make-up,props, the organisation of companies, the audience, competitions, and offers amythological account of the origin of theatre.[15] In doing so, it provides indications about the nature of actual theatrical practices. Sanskrit theatre was performed on sacred ground by priests who had been trained in the necessary skills (dance, music, and recitation) in a [hereditary process]. Its aim was both to educate and to entertain. Characters in Sanskrit plays were important. They were broadly classified into three kinds which are Nayaka(hero), Nayika(heroine) and the Vidusaka(Clown).[18]
An appreciation for the stagecraft and classic Sanskrit drama was seen as an essential part of a sophisticated world view, by the end of the seventh century.[19] Under the patronage of royal courts, performers belonged to professional companies that were directed by a stage manager (sutradhara), who may also have acted.[20] This task was thought of as being analogous to that of apuppeteer—the literal meaning of "sutradhara" is "holder of the strings or threads".[15] The performers were trained rigorously in vocal and physical technique.[21] There were no prohibitions against female performers; companies were all-male, all-female, and of mixed gender. Certain sentiments were considered inappropriate for men to enact, however, and were thought better suited to women. Some performers played characters their own age, while others played ages different from their own (whether younger or older). Of all the elements of theatre, theTreatise gives most attention to acting (abhinaya), which consists of two styles: realistic (lokadharmi) and conventional (natyadharmi), though the major focus is on the latter.[22]
Its drama is regarded as the highest achievement ofSanskrit literature.[23] It usedstock characters, such as the hero (nayaka), heroine (nayika), or clown (vidusaka). Actors may have specialised in a particular type.Kālidāsa is arguably considered to beIndia's greatest Sanskrit dramatist, writing in the ca. 4th century CE-ca. 5th century CE. Three famous romantic plays written by Kālidāsa are theMālavikāgnimitram (Mālavikā and Agnimitra),Vikramuurvashiiya (Pertaining to Vikrama and Urvashi), andAbhijñānaśākuntala (The Recognition of Shakuntala). The last was inspired by a story in theMahabharata and is the most famous. It was the first to be translated into English and German.Śakuntalā (in English translation) influencedGoethe'sFaust (1808–1832).[23]
The next great Indian dramatist wasBhavabhuti (c. 7th century CE). He is said to have written the following three plays:Malati-Madhava,Mahaviracharita andUttar Ramacharita. Among these three, the last two cover between them the entire epic ofRamayana. The powerful Indian emperorHarsha (606–648) is credited with having written three plays: the comedyRatnavali,Priyadarsika, and theBuddhist dramaNagananda.
According to some scholars the earliest form of the classical theatre of India was theSanskrit theatre which came into existence after the development ofGreek andRoman theatre.[24] One theory describes this development as an offshoot of Alexander the Great's Indian conquest.[25] The invading army staged Greek-style plays and Indians picked up the performance art. While some scholars argue that traditional Indian theatre predated it, there is a recognition that classical Greek theatre has helped transformed it.[25] The Greek origin of Indian theatre has not received popular acceptance.
Mid twelfth century – eighteenth centuryIndia's artistic identity is deeply routed within its social, economical, cultural, and religious views. For this reason it is essential to understand Indian cultural practices as they relate directly to performers and performances of this time. Performances including dance, music, and text are an expression of devotion for the Indian culture, so when looking at 'theatre' of this time a broader definition must be ascribed to the word.[26]
Based on the understanding that performing arts are audience-oriented and must continuously adapt to the socio-cultural landscape of their patronage. Northern India managed to retain their cultural traditions in spite of the new Turko-Persian influences. The early thirteenth century marked this change for the Indian culture, where Sanskrit dramas and stage craft had been previously revered by the elites, it was now no longer relevant. This was due to the invading cultures that began to dominate and did not appreciate or understand, and since they did not understand the Sanskrit language it could no longer be held in such a high regard, and as a consequence many theatre artist suffered from neglect.[26]
The commonplace to find performers was in urban centers, because it was there they were able to find work to support themselves. Large temples where home to musical and theatrical shows.[26]
A Bharata Natyshatra also known as the śāstra was written to list costumes, gestures, positions of the body, and make up. It also lists plots that were weighed unsuitable and it also the most completed document. Most of Indian theatre had no scenery. There was usually a few props like a brass lamp.
When the concept of "Theatrical Art" was introduced medieval India was narrating poems.Bhakti poetry became popular.
During medieval IndiaBhavabhuti was a famous dramatist, he had three portent plays Malati-Madhava, Magviracharita and the Uttar Ramacharita.
Under British colonial rule, modern Indian theatre began when a theatre was started inBelgachia. One of the earliest plays composed and staged during this period was Buro Shalikher Ghaare Roa (1860) byMichael Madhusudan Dutt, both inBengali. Around the same time,Nil Darpan (1858–59, first commercial production in 1872, byGirish Chandra Ghosh at the national theatre inCalcutta) a Bengali play byDinabandhu Mitra garnered both accolades and controversy for depicting the horror and tragedy of indigo cultivation in rural Bengal, and played a major role in theindigo revolt. Rabindranath Tagore was a pioneering modern playwright who wrote plays noted for their exploration and questioning of nationalism, identity, spiritualism and material greed.[27] His plays are written inBengali and includeChitra (Chitrangada, 1892),The King of the Dark Chamber (Raja, 1910),The Post Office (Dakghar, 1913), andRed Oleander (Raktakarabi, 1924).[27]
Kalyanam Raghuramaiah, a recipient of theSangeet Natak Akademi Award, and thePadmashri, was known for the roles ofKrishna or Dushyantha, Bhavanisankar, Narada etc. inTelugu theatre. He performed those roles for about 60 years. He indulged in elaborate raga alapana, based on differentragas while rendering padyams.[28][29] One of the finest method actors, He had the ability to sing padyams and songs through whistle, by putting his finger in mouth and producing thewhistle or flute sound (meaning Eela in Telugu). He has acted in various dramas and gave more than 20,000 stage performances.[4] He was called the "Nightingale of the Stage" byRabindranath Tagore[30]
The British believed that the Indian actors were mystical creatures. They believed they brought them luck and prosperity. The emergent modern Indian theater, which is also referred to as Native theatre, features a theatrical approach that has been viewed as an intersection of Indian social space with Western theater formats andconventions.[31] The resulting theatrical space is described to be existing at the material, symbolic, and discursive levels. To resist its use by Indians as an instrument of protest against colonial rule, the British Government imposed theDramatic Performances Act in 1876.
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Improvisational (also known as improv or impro) is a form of theatre in which the actors useimprovisational acting techniques to perform spontaneously. Improvisers typically use audience suggestions to guide the performance as they create dialogue, setting, and plot extemporaneously.
Many improvisational actors also work as scripted actors and "improv" techniques are often taught in standard acting classes. The basic skills of listening, clarity, confidence, and performing instinctively and spontaneously are considered important skills for actors to develop.
Improvisational Theatre in India is largely used for educational, interventional and entertainment purposes. The traces of Improvisational theatre in India dates back to the 1990s with the advent ofForum theatre with Janasanskriti under the leadership of Sanjoy Ganguly. After that in 1999, a team from the US with Bev Hoskins and Mary Good introducedPlayback theatre to India. Thus Playback theatre and Forum theatre began to take its shape in the remotest parts of India, such as Karur, Chennai, West Bengal, as well as Bangalore too.Yours Truly Theatre, a Bangalore-based group, developed "complete the story", an indigenous format of improvisational theatre developed under the leadership of Ranji David and Nandini Rao in 2006. In 2009, they also developed another form of improvisational theatre called "mushyara theatre".
In the late 1960s Badal Sircar introduced a new form of political theatre called the Third Theatre. Badal Sarkar's anti-establishment experimental theatre created a new genre of social enlightenment. He formed his first Third Theatre Group satabdi, in the year 1967. They used to perform Drama written by Badal Sircar in Anganmancha (theatre in the courtyard) in the Third Theatre form that break away from the tradition of One point view of the Proscenium and urged on the taking theatre to the people.
Improvisational Theatre groups in India:
Improvisational Theatre forms practiced in India:
Notable theatre directors:
Kutiyattam is the only surviving specimen of the ancient Sanskrit theatre, thought to have originated around the beginning of theCommon Era, and is officially recognised byUNESCO as aMasterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity. In addition, many forms of Indian folk theatre abound.Bhavai (strolling players) is a popular folk theatre form ofGujarat, said to have arisen in the 14th century AD.Bhaona andAnkiya Nats have been practicing inAssam since the early 16th century which were created and initiated byMahapurusha Srimanta Sankardeva.Jatra has been popular inBengal and its origin is traced to the Bhakti movement in the 16th century. Another folk theatre form popular inHaryana, Uttar Pradesh andMalwa region ofMadhya Pradesh isSwang, which is dialogue-oriented rather than movement-oriented and is considered to have arisen in its present form in the late 18th – early 19th centuries.Yakshagana is a very popular theatre art in Karnataka and has existed under different names at least since the 16th century. It is semi-classical in nature and involves music and songs based oncarnatic music, rich costumes, storylines based on theMahabharata andRamayana. It also employs spoken dialogue in-between its songs that gives it afolk art flavour.Kathakali is a form of dance-drama, characteristic ofKerala, that arose in the 17th century, developing from the temple-art playsKrishnanattam andRamanattam.
Urdu Drama evolved from the prevailing dramatic traditions of North India shaping Rahas or Raas as practiced by exponents likeWajid Ali Shah,Nawab of Awadh. His dramatic experiments led to the famousInder Sabha ofAgha Hasan Amanat and later this tradition took the shape ofParsi theatre.Yahudi Ki Ladki (The Jew's Daughter) byAgha Hashar Kashmiri is culmination of this tradition.
Among all the languages Urdu (which was called Hindi by early writers), along with Gujrati, Marathi and Bengali theatres have kept flourishing and demand for its writers and artists has not subsided by the drama aficionados. All the early gems of Urdu Theatre (performed by Parsi Companies) were made into films. Great works like those by Shakespeare have influenced Modern Urdu tradition to a large extent when Indian, Iranian, Turkish stories and folk was adapted for stage with heavy doses of Urdu Poetry. In modern times writers likeImtiaz Ali Taj, Rafi Peer, Krishan Chander, Manto, Upender Nath Ashk, Ghulam Rabbani, Prof. Mujeeb and many others shaped this tradition.
While Prof Hasan, Ghulam Jeelani, J.N. Kaushal, Shameem Hanfi, Jameel Shaidayi etc. belong to the old generation, contemporary writers like Mujeeb Khan,Javed Siddiqui, Sayeed Alam, Danish Iqbal, Anis Azmi, Aftab Hasnain, Aslam Parvez, Anis Javed, Iqbal Niyazi,Syed Sahil Agha and Zaheer Anwar are few post modern playwrights actively contributing in the field of Urdu Drama.
Zaheer Anwar has kept the flag of Urdu Theatre flying in Kolkata. Unlike the writers of previous generation, Danish iqbal and Zaheer do not write bookish Plays but their work is a product of vigorous performing tradition. Iqbal Niyazi of Mumbai has written several plays in Urdu. His play, "Aur Kitne Jalyanwala BaughU??" won National award other awards. Hence this is the only generation after Amanat and Agha Hashr who actually write for stage and not for libraries.
An upcoming group Aatrangi Pitaara Foundation is actively performing and saving Hindustani Theatre. Their presentation of Anti-National Ghalib[32] written by Danish Iqbal has been well received by the Delhi Theatre enthusiasts. Leading the group,Keshav Raina is developing more Hindustani shows showcasing the rich history and heritage of India.
Yakshagana is a popular semi-classical theatre art from coastal Karnataka. It uses rich costumes, music, dance, and dialogue. Puppet shows in parts ofKarnataka uses all these elements ofyakshagana to depict stories from theRamayana andMahabharata.
Mobile theatres are a kind of popular theatre form that exist mainly inAssam[citation needed]. For staging their plays, theatre groups travel different places with their casts, singers, musicians, dancers and entire crew. Even the tent and chairs for the audience are carried with them. Mobile theatre was first staged on 2 October 1963 inPathsala, Assam.Achyut Lahkar is known as the father of mobile theatre.[33]
Mobile theatre in Salempur Deoria Eastern Uttar Pradesh is over 900 times played on stage within fifteen years. sanskritiksangam.com is a leading cultural organisation that has been promoting rich Indian culture through regional artists based in Eastern Uttar Pradesh. Since its establishment in 2005, One of its most popular classical-Musical-Dance Drama creation Sanskritik Sangam Salempur, Meghdoot Ki Puravanchal Yatra[34] in Bhojpuri an adaptation of Kalidasa's Meghdootam has done a record 96 shows in cities like Mumbai, Delhi, Rishikesh, Agra, Varanasi, Patna, Sonpur Mela Gorakhpur, near by areas in eastern UP among others. The creations has won many awards and recognitions for its team through leading organisations Its creations revolve around famous mythological and historical personalities and stories like, Ramayana (7 to 9 days play) 56 places, and 9 days in Surinaam, Guyana, Trinidad &Tobago iof caribbion countries Bhagwata (7 days play) two places, Kabir (32 places), Harishchandra Taramati, (32 Places), Utho Ahilya (36 places) and Sri Krishna (Three places). And also perform popular plays from Hindi literature including Kaptan Sahab (31), Court Marshall (1), Saiyyan Bhaye Kotwal (22), Muvaavaje (2), Bakari (2), Bade Bhai Saheb (63), Kafan (12), Bholaram ka jeev (17), Satgati (2), Boodhi kaaki (3), kakha ga kaa chakkar (7), Jago grahak jaago (3) etc. among other presentations based on famous literary geniuses like Munshi Premchand, Bhikaari Thakur, etc.Manvendra Tripathi as a Director of this team handling the institution.
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