Cattle (Bos taurus) are large,domesticated,bovidungulates widely kept aslivestock. They are prominent modern members of the subfamilyBovinae and the most widespread species of the genusBos. Mature female cattle are calledcows and mature male cattle arebulls. Young female cattle are calledheifers, young male cattle areoxen orbullocks, and castrated male cattle are known assteers.
Taurine cattle are widely distributed across Europe and temperate areas of Asia, the Americas, and Australia.Zebus are found mainly in India and tropical areas of Asia, America, and Australia.Sanga cattle are found primarily insub-Saharan Africa. These types, sometimes classified as separate species or subspecies, are further divided intoover 1,000 recognized breeds.
Around 10,500 years ago, taurine cattle were domesticated from wildaurochs progenitors incentral Anatolia, theLevant andWestern Iran. A separate domestication event occurred in theIndian subcontinent, which gave rise to zebu. There were over 940 million cattle in the world by 2022. Cattle are responsible for around 7% of globalgreenhouse gas emissions. They were one of the first domesticated animals to havea fully-mapped genome.
The termcattle was borrowed fromAnglo-Normancatel (replacing nativeOld English terms likekine, now considered archaic, poetic, or dialectal),[1] itself fromMedieval Latincapitale 'principal sum of money, capital', itself derived in turn from Latincaput 'head'.Cattle originally meant movablepersonal property, especially livestock of any kind, as opposed toreal property (the land, which also included wild or small free-roaming animals such as chickens—they were sold as part of the land).[2] The word is a variant ofchattel (a unit of personal property) and closely related tocapital in the economic sense.[3][2] The wordcow came viaAnglo-Saxoncū (pluralcȳ), fromCommon Indo-Europeangʷōus (genitivegʷowés) 'a bovine animal', cf.Persian:gâv,Sanskrit:go-.[4] In older English sources such as theKing James Version of the Bible,cattle often means livestock, as opposed todeer, which are wild.[2]
Characteristics
Description
Skeleton
Anatomical model, showing the large 4-chambered stomach
Cattle are largeartiodactyls,mammals withcloven hooves, meaning that they walk on two toes, the third and fourth digits. Like all bovid species, they can have horns, which are unbranched and are not shed annually.[5] Coloration varies with breed; common colors are black, white, and red/brown, and some breeds are spotted or have mixed colors.[6] Bulls are larger than cows of the same breed by up to a few hundred kilograms. British Hereford cows, for example, weigh 600–800 kg (1,300–1,800 lb), while the bulls weigh 1,000–1,200 kg (2,200–2,600 lb).[7] Before 1790, beef cattle averaged only 160 kg (350 lb) net. Thereafter, weights climbed steadily.[8][9]Cattle breeds vary widely in size; the tallest and heaviest is theChianina, where a mature bull may be up to 1.8 m (5 ft 11 in) at the shoulder, and may reach 1,280 kg (2,820 lb) in weight.[10]The natural life of domestic cattle is some 25–30 years. Beef cattle go to slaughter at around 18 months, and dairy cows at about five years.[11]
Bacteria dominate the rumen microbiome; composition can change substantially with diet.[12]
Cattle areruminants, meaning theirdigestive system is highly specialized for processing plant material such asgrass rich incellulose, a tough carbohydrate polymer which many animals cannot digest. They do this in symbiosis with micro-organisms –bacteria,fungi, andprotozoa – that possesscellulases,enzymes that split cellulose into its constituentsugars. Among the many bacteria that contribute areFibrobacter succinogenes,Ruminococcus flavefaciens, andRuminococcus albus. Cellulolytic fungi include several species ofNeocallimastix, while the protozoa include theciliatesEudiplodinium maggie andOstracodinium album.[13] If the animal's feed changes over time, the composition of thismicrobiome changes in response.[12]
Cattle have one largestomach with four compartments; therumen,reticulum,omasum, andabomasum. The rumen is the largest compartment and it harbours the most important parts of the microbiome.[12] The reticulum, the smallest compartment, is known as the "honeycomb". The omasum's main function is to absorb water and nutrients from the digestible feed. The abomasum has a similar function to the human stomach.[14]
Cattleregurgitate and re-chew their food in the process of chewing thecud, like most ruminants. While feeding, cows swallow their food without chewing; it goes into the rumen for storage. Later, the food is regurgitated to the mouth, a mouthful at a time, where the cud is chewed by the molars, grinding down the coarse vegetation to small particles. The cud is then swallowed again and further digested by the micro-organisms in the cow's stomach.[14]
Cows seek secluded areas for calving.[19] Semi-wildHighland cattle heifers first give birth at 2 or 3 years of age, and the timing of birth is synchronized with increases in natural food quality. Average calving interval is 391 days, and calving mortality within the first year of life is 5%.[20] Beef calves suckle an average of 5 times per day, spending some 46 minutes suckling. There is a diurnal rhythm in suckling, peaking at roughly 6am, 11:30am, and 7pm.[21] Under natural conditions, calves stay with their mother until weaning at 8 to 11 months. Heifer and bull calves are equally attached to their mothers in the first few months of life.[22]
Cognition
Individual cattle differ in personality traits such as fearfulness and sociability.[23]
Cattle have a variety of cognitive abilities. They can memorize the locations of multiple food sources,[24] and can retain memories for at least 48 days.[25] Young cattle learn more quickly than adults,[26] and calves are capable of discrimination learning,[27] distinguishing familiar and unfamiliar animals,[28] and between humans, using faces and other cues.[29] Calves prefer their own mother's vocalizations to those of an unfamiliar cow.[30] Vocalizations provide information on the age, sex, dominance status and reproductive status of the caller, and may indicateestrus in cows and competitive display in bulls.[31] Cows cancategorize images as familiar and unfamiliar individuals.[28]Cloned calves from the same donor form subgroups, suggesting that kin discrimination may be a basis of grouping behaviour.[32] Cattle usevisual/brain lateralisation when scanning novel and familiar stimuli.[33] They prefer to view novel stimuli with the left eye (using the right brain hemisphere), but the right eye for familiar stimuli.[34] Individual cattle have also been observed to display different personality traits, such as fearfulness and sociability.[23]
Senses
Vision is the dominant sense; cattle obtain almost half of their information visually.[35] Being prey animals, cattle evolved to look out for predators almost all around, with eyes that are on the sides of their head rather than the front. This gives them a field of view of 330°, but limitsbinocular vision (and thereforestereopsis) to some 30° to 50°, compared to 140° in humans.[28] They aredichromatic, like most mammals.[36] Cattle avoid bitter-tasting foods, selecting sweet foods for energy. Their sensitivity to sour-tasting foods helps them to maintain optimal ruminalpH.[35] They seek out salty foods by taste and smell to maintain theirelectrolyte balance.[37] Their hearing is better than that of horses,[38] but worse at localising sounds than goats, and much worse than dogs or humans.[39] They can distinguish between live and recorded human speech.[40] Olfaction probably plays a large role in their social life, indicating social and reproductive status.[35][41] Cattle can tell when other animals are stressed by smelling the alarm chemicals in their urine.[42] Cattle can be trained to recognise conspecific individuals using olfaction only.[41]
Cattle live in adominance hierarchy. This is maintained in several ways. Cattle often engage in mock fights where they test each other's strength in a non-aggressive way.Licking is primarily performed by subordinates and received by dominant animals. Mounting is a playful behavior shown by calves of both sexes and by bulls and sometimes by cows in estrus,[43] however, this is not a dominance related behavior as has been found in other species.[20] Dominance-associated aggressiveness does not correlate with rank position, but is closely related to rank distance between individuals.[20] The horns of cattle arehonest signals used in mate selection. Horned cattle attempt to keep greater distances between themselves and have fewer physical interactions than hornless cattle, resulting in more stable social relationships.[44] In calves, agonistic behavior becomes less frequent as space allowance increases, but not as group size changes, whereas in adults, the number of agonistic encounters increases with group size.[45]
Dominance relationships in semi-wild highland cattle are very firm, with few overt aggressive conflicts: most disputes are settled byagonistic (non-aggressive, competitive) behaviors with no physical contact between opponents, reducing the risk of injury. Dominance status depends on age and sex, with older animals usually dominant to young ones and males dominant to females. Young bulls gain superior dominance status over adult cows when they reach about 2 years of age.[20]
Cattle eat mixed diets, but prefer to eat approximately 70% clover and 30% grass. This preference has a diurnal pattern, with a stronger preference for clover in the morning, and the proportion of grass increasing towards the evening.[46] When grazing, cattle vary several aspects of their bite, i.e. tongue and jaw movements, depending on characteristics of the plant they are eating. Bite area decreases with the density of the plants but increases with their height. Bite area is determined by the sweep of the tongue; in one study observing 750-kilogram (1,650 lb) steers, bite area reached a maximum of approximately 170 cm2 (30 sq in). Bite depth increases with the height of the plants. By adjusting their behavior, cattle obtain heavier bites in swards that are tall and sparse compared with short, dense swards of equal mass/area.[47] Cattle adjust other aspects of their grazing behavior in relation to the available food; foraging velocity decreases and intake rate increases in areas of abundant palatable forage.[48] Cattle avoid grazing areas contaminated by the faeces of other cattle more strongly than they avoid areas contaminated by sheep,[49] but they do not avoid pasture contaminated by rabbits.[50]
Temperament and emotions
Ear postures of cows indicate emotional state and overall welfare.[51]
In cattle, temperament or behavioral disposition can affect productivity, overall health, and reproduction.[52] Five underlying categories of temperament traits have been proposed: shyness–boldness, exploration–avoidance, activity,aggressiveness, and sociability.[53] There are many indicators of emotion in cattle. Holstein–Friesian heifers that had made clear improvements in a learning experiment had higher heart rates, indicating an emotional reaction to their own learning.[54] After separation from their mothers, Holstein calves react, indicating low mood.[55] Similarly, after hot-irondehorning, calves react to the post-operative pain.[56] The position of the ears has been used as an indicator of emotional state.[28] Cattle can tell when other cattle are stressed by the chemicals in their urine.[42] Cattle aregregarious, and even short-term isolation causes psychologicalstress. When heifers are isolated, vocalizations,heart rate and plasmacortisol all increase. When visual contact is re-instated, vocalizations rapidly decline; heart rate decreases more rapidly if the returning cattle are familiar to the previously isolated individual.[57] Mirrors have been used to reduce stress in isolated cattle.[58]
The average sleep time of a domestic cow is about 4 hours a day.[59] Cattle do have astay apparatus,[60] but do not sleep standing up;[61] they lie down to sleep deeply.[62]
Genomic analysis shows there are five main cattle sub-types, here labelled by continent.[63]
In 2009, the National Institutes of Health and theUS Department of Agriculture reported having mapped thebovine genome.[64] Cattle have some 22,000 genes, of which 80% are shared with humans; they have about 1000 genes that they share with dogs and rodents, but not with humans. Using this bovine "HapMap", researchers can track the differences between breeds that affect meat and milk yields.[65] Early research focused on Hereford genetic sequences; a wider study mapped a further 4.2% of the cattle genome.[63]
Behavioral traits of cattle can be asheritable as some production traits, and often, the two can be related.[66] The heritability of temperament (response to isolation during handling) has been calculated as 0.36 and 0.46 forhabituation to handling.[67] Rangeland assessments show that the heritability of aggressiveness in cattle is around 0.36.[68]
Quantitative trait loci have been found for a range of production and behavioral characteristics for both dairy and beef cattle.[69]
Evolution
Phylogeny
Cattle have played a key role inhuman history, having been domesticated since at least the earlyNeolithic age. Archaeozoological and genetic data indicate that cattle were first domesticated from wildaurochs (Bos primigenius) approximately 10,500 years ago. There were two major areas of domestication: one incentral Anatolia, theLevant andWestern Iran, giving rise to the taurine line, and a second in the area that is now Pakistan, resulting in the indicine line.[70] Modern mitochondrial DNA variation indicates the taurine line may have arisen from as few as 80aurochs tamed in the upper reaches ofMesopotamia near the villages ofÇayönü Tepesi in what is now southeastern Turkey, andDja'de el-Mughara in what is now northern Syria.[71]
Although European cattle are largely descended from the taurine lineage, gene flow from African cattle (partially of indicine origin) contributed substantial genomic components to both southern European cattle breeds and their New World descendants.[70] A study on 134 breeds showed that modern taurine cattle originated from Africa, Asia, North and South America, Australia, and Europe.[72] Some researchers have suggested that African taurine cattle are derived from a third independent domestication from the North African aurochs.[70] Whether there have been two or three domestications, European, African, and Asian cattle share much of their genomes both through their species ancestry and through repeated migrations of livestock and genetic material between species, as shown in the diagram.[73]
Cattle phylogeny and migrations involve two major species, at least two domestications, and migrations between these.[73]Żubroń, aEuropean bison–cattle hybrid
Cattle were originally identified as three separate species:Bos taurus, the European or "taurine" cattle (including similar types from Africa and Asia);Bos indicus, theIndicine or "zebu"; and the extinctBos primigenius, theaurochs. The aurochs is ancestral to both zebu and taurine cattle.[74] They were later reclassified as one species,Bos taurus, with the aurochs (B. t. primigenius), zebu (B. t. indicus), and taurine (B. t. taurus) cattle as subspecies.[75] However, this taxonomy is contentious, and authorities such as theAmerican Society of Mammalogists treat these taxa as separate species.[76][77]
Complicating the matter is the ability of cattle tointerbreed with other closely related species. Hybrid individuals and even breeds exist, not only between taurine cattle and zebu (such as thesanga cattle (Bos taurus africanus xBos indicus), but also between one or both of these and some other members of thegenusBos –yaks (thedzo or yattle[78]),banteng, andgaur. Hybrids such as thebeefalo breed can even occur between taurine cattle and either species ofbison, leading some authors to consider them part of the genusBos, as well.[79] The hybrid origin of some types may not be obvious – for example,genetic testing of theDwarf Lulu breed, the only taurine-type cattle in Nepal, found them to be a mix of taurine cattle, zebu, and yak.[80]
The aurochs originally ranged throughout Europe, North Africa, and much of Asia. In historical times, its range became restricted to Europe, and the last known individual died inMazovia, Poland, around 1627.[81] Breeders have attempted to recreate a similar appearance to the aurochs by crossing traditional types of domesticated cattle, producing theHeck breed.[82]
A group of taurine-type cattle exist in Africa; they either represent an independent domestication event or were the result of crossing taurines domesticated elsewhere with local aurochs, but they are genetically distinct;[83] some authors name them as a separate subspecies,Bos taurus africanus.[84] The only pure African taurine breeds remaining are theN'Dama,Kuri and some varieties of the West African Shorthorn.[85]
Cattle are often raised by allowing herds tograze on the grasses of large tracts ofrangeland. Raising cattle extensively in this manner allows the use of land that might be unsuitable for growing crops. The most common interactions with cattle involve dailyfeeding, cleaning andmilking. Many routine husbandry practices involveear tagging,dehorning, loading,medical operations,artificial insemination, vaccinations andhoof care, as well as training for agricultural shows and preparations. Around the world,Fulani husbandry rests on behavioural techniques, whereas in Europe, cattle are controlled primarily by physical means, such asfences.[93] Breeders use cattle husbandry to reducetuberculosis susceptibility byselective breeding and maintaining herd health to avoid concurrent disease.[94]
In the United States, many cattle are raised intensively, kept inconcentrated animal feeding operations, meaning there are at least 700 mature dairy cows or at least 1000 other cattle stabled or confined in afeedlot for "45 days or more in a 12-month period".[92]
A Hereford being inspected forticks. Cattle are often restrained incattle crushes when given medical attention.
A calf with anose ring to prevent it from suckling, usually to assist inweaning
Historically, the cattle population of Britain rose from 9.8 million in 1878 to 11.7 million in 1908, but beef consumption rose much faster. Britain became the "stud farm of the world" exporting livestock to countries where there were no indigenous cattle. In 1929 80% of the meat trade of the world was products of what were originally English breeds. There were nearly 70 million cattle in the US by the early 1930s.[95]
Cattle have the largest biomass of any animal species on Earth, at roughly 400 million tonnes, followed closely byAntarctic krill at 379 million tonnes and humans at 373 million tonnes.[96] In 2023, the countries with the most cattle were India with 307.5 million (32.6% of the total), Brazil with 194.4 million, and China with 101.5 million, out of a total of 942.6 million in the world.[97]
Economy
Cattle are kept on farms to produce meat, milk, and leather, and sometimes to pull carts or farm implements.[98]
The meat of adult cattle is known asbeef, and that ofcalves asveal. Other body parts are used as food products, including blood,liver,kidney,heart andoxtail. Approximately 300 million cattle, including dairy animals, are slaughtered each year for food.[99] About a quarter of the world's meat comes from cattle.[100] World cattle meat production in 2021 was 72.3 million tons.[101]
TheHereford is a widespread beef breed, introduced in the 18th century
Certain breeds of cattle, such as theHolstein-Friesian, are used to producemilk,[102][103] much of which is processed intodairy products such asbutter,cheese, andyogurt. Dairy cattle are usually kept on specialized dairy farms designed for milk production. Most cows are milked twice per day, with milk processed at a dairy, which may be onsite at the farm or the milk may be shipped to a dairy plant for eventual sale of a dairy product.[104] Lactation is induced in heifers and spayed cows by a combination of physical and psychological stimulation, by drugs, or by a combination of those methods.[105] For mother cows to continue producing milk, they give birth to one calf per year. If the calf is male, it is generally slaughtered at a young age to produceveal.[106] Cows produce milk until three weeks before birth.[103] Over the last fifty years, dairy farming has become more intensive to increase the yield of milk produced by each cow. TheHolstein-Friesian is the breed of dairy cow most common in the UK, Europe and the United States. It has been bred selectively to produce the highest yields of milk of any cow. The average in the UK is around 22 litres per day.[102][103]
Dairy is a large industry worldwide. In 2023, the 27 European Union countries produced 143 million tons of cow's milk; the United States 104.1 million tons; and India 99.5 million tons.[107] India further produces 94.4 million tons ofbuffalo milk,[108] making it (in 2023) the world's largest milk producer; its dairy industry employs some 80 million people.[109]
Holstein cattle are the primary dairy breed, bred for high milk production.
The milking of cattle was once largely by hand. Demonstration atCogges Manor Farm, Oxfordshire
Oxen are cattle trained asdraft animals. Oxen can pull heavier loads and for a longer period of time thanhorses.[110] Oxen are used worldwide, especially indeveloping countries. There are some 11 million draft oxen in sub-Saharan Africa,[111] while in 1998 India had over 65 million oxen.[112] At the start of the 21st century, about half the world's crop production depended on land preparation by draft animals.[113]
Hides
Cattle are not often kept solely for hides, and they are usually a by-product of beef production. Hides are used mainly for leather products such as shoes. In 2012, India was the world's largest producer of cattle hides.[114] Cattle hides account for around 65% of the world's leather production.[115][116]
Most of the top 10 beef-producing countries are likely to see lower production with greater temperatures (left) and heat stress (right).[122]
Climate change is expected to exacerbateheat stress in cattle, and for longer periods.[123] Heat-stressed cattle may experience accelerated breakdown ofadipose tissue by the liver, causinglipidosis.[124] Cattle eat less when heat stressed, resulting inruminalacidosis, which can lead tolaminitis. Cattle can attempt to deal with higher temperatures bypanting more often; this rapidly decreasescarbon dioxide concentrations at the price of increasingpH, respiratoryalkalosis. To deal with this, cattle are forced to shedbicarbonate throughurination, at the expense ofrumen buffering. These two pathologies can both causelameness.[124] Another specific risk ismastitis.[124] This worsens asCalliphora blowflies increase in number with continued warming, spreading mastitis-causing bacteria.[125]Ticks too are likely to increase in temperate zones as the climate warms, increasing the risk of tick-borne diseases.[126] Both beef and milk production are likely to experience declines due to climate change.[122][127]
Impact of cattle husbandry
On public health
Cattle health is at once a veterinary issue (for animal welfare and productivity), apublic health issue (to limit the spread of disease), and afood safety issue (to ensure meat and dairy products are safe to eat). These concerns are reflected in farming regulations.[128] These rules can become political matters, as when it was proposed in the UK in 2011 that milk fromtuberculosis-infected cattle should be allowed to enter the food chain.[129] Cattle disease attracted attention in the 1980s and 1990s whenbovine spongiform encephalopathy (mad cow disease)broke out in the United Kingdom. BSE can cross into humans as the deadlyvariant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease; 178 people in the UK had died from it by 2010.[130]
Stocking density is the number of animals within a specified area. High stocking density can affect cattle health, welfare, productivity,[151] and feeding behaviour.[152] Densely-stocked cattle feed more rapidly and lie down sooner, increasing the risk of teat infection, mastitis, andembryo loss.[153][154] The stress and negative health impacts induced by high stocking density such as inconcentrated animal feeding operations orfeedlots, auctions, and transport may be detrimental to cattle welfare.[155]
Two sports involving cattle are thought to be cruel by animal welfare groups:rodeos andbullfighting. Such groups oppose rodeo activities includingbull riding,calf roping andsteer roping, stating that rodeos are unnecessary and cause stress, injury, and death to the animals.[159] In Spain, theRunning of the bulls faces opposition due to the stress and injuries incurred by the bulls during the event.[160]
In culture
From early in civilisation, cattle have been used in barter.[161][162] Cattle play a partin several religions. Veneration of the cow is a symbol of Hindu community identity.[163] Slaughter of cows is forbidden by law in several states of the Indian Union.[164]
^Frandson, Rowen D.; Wilke, W. Lee; Fails, Anna Dee (2013).Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 449–451.ISBN978-1-118-68601-0.
^Odde, K. G.; Kiracofe, G.H.; Schalles, R.R. (1985). "Suckling behavior in range beef calves".Journal of Animal Science.61 (2):307–309.doi:10.2527/jas1985.612307x.PMID4044428.
^Kovalčik, K.; Kovalčik, M. (1986). "Learning ability and memory testing in cattle of different ages".Applied Animal Behaviour Science.15 (1):27–29.doi:10.1016/0168-1591(86)90019-5.
^de Passille, A.M.; Rushen, J.; Ladewig, J.; Petherick, C. (1996). "Dairy calves' discrimination of people based on previous handling".Journal of Animal Science.74 (5):969–974.doi:10.2527/1996.745969x.PMID8726728.
^Watts, J.M.; Stookey, J.M. (2000). "Vocal behaviour in cattle: the animal's commentary on its biological processes and welfare".Applied Animal Behaviour Science.67 (1):15–33.doi:10.1016/S0168-1591(99)00108-2.PMID10719186.
^Jacobs, G.H.; Deegan, J.F.; Neitz, J. (1998). "Photopigment basis for dichromatic color vision in cows, goats and sheep".Vis. Neurosci.15 (3):581–584.doi:10.1017/s0952523898153154 (inactive 1 November 2024).PMID9685209.S2CID3719972.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
^Heffner, R.S.; Heffner, H.E. (1983). "Hearing in large mammals: Horses (Equus caballus) and cattle (Bos taurus)".Behavioral Neuroscience.97 (2):299–309.doi:10.1037/0735-7044.97.2.299.
^Heffner, R.S.; Heffner, H.E. (1992). "Hearing in large mammals: sound-localization acuity in cattle (Bos taurus) and goats (Capra hircus)".Journal of Comparative Psychology.106 (2):107–113.doi:10.1037/0735-7036.106.2.107.PMID1600717.
^abBouissou, M.F.; Boissy, A.; Le Niendre, P.; Vessier, I. (2001). "The Social Behaviour of Cattle 5.". In Keeling, L.; Gonyou, H. (eds.).Social Behavior in Farm Animals. CABI Publishing. pp. 113–133.
^abBoissy, A.; Terlouw, C.; Le Neindre, P. (1998). "Presence of cues from stressed conspecifics increases reactivity to aversive events in cattle: evidence for the existence of alarm substances in urine".Physiology and Behavior.63 (4):489–495.doi:10.1016/s0031-9384(97)00466-6.PMID9523888.S2CID36904002.
^Knierim, U.; Irrgang, N.; Roth, B.A. (2015). "To be or not to be horned–consequences in cattle".Livestock Science.179:29–37.doi:10.1016/j.livsci.2015.05.014.
^Rutter, S.M. (2006). "Diet preference for grass and legumes in free-ranging domestic sheep and cattle: current theory and future application".Applied Animal Behaviour Science.97 (1):17–35.doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2005.11.016.
^Laca, E.A.; Ungar, E.D.; Seligman, N.; Demment, M.W. (1992). "Effects of sward height and bulk density on bite dimensions of cattle grazing homogeneous swards".Grass and Forage Science.47 (1):91–102.Bibcode:1992GForS..47...91L.doi:10.1111/j.1365-2494.1992.tb02251.x.
^Bailey, D.W.; Gross, J.E.; Laca, E.A.; Rittenhouse, L.R.; Coughenour, M.B.; Swift, D.M.; Sims, P.L. (1996). "Mechanisms that result in large herbivore grazing distribution patterns".Journal of Range Management.49 (5):386–400.doi:10.2307/4002919.hdl:10150/644282.JSTOR4002919.
^Daniels, M.J.; Ball, N.; Hutchings, M.R.; Greig, A. (2001). "The grazing response of cattle to pasture contaminated with rabbit faeces and the implications for the transmission of paratuberculosis".The Veterinary Journal.161 (3):306–313.doi:10.1053/tvjl.2000.0550.PMID11352488.
^Boissy, A.; Le Neindre, P. (1997). "Behavioral, cardiac and cortisol responses to brief peer separation and reunion in cattle".Physiology & Behavior.61 (5):693–699.doi:10.1016/s0031-9384(96)00521-5.PMID9145939.S2CID8507049.
^Lott, Dale F.; Hart, Benjamin L. (October 1979). "Applied ethology in a nomadic cattle culture".Applied Animal Ethology.5 (4):309–319.doi:10.1016/0304-3762(79)90102-0.
^Muruvimi, F.; Ellis-Jones, J. (1999). "A farming systems approach to improving draft animal power in Sub-Saharan Africa". In Starkey, P.; Kaumbutho, P. (eds.).Meeting the challenges of animal traction. London: Intermediate Technology Publications. pp. 10–19.
^Phaniraja, K. L.; Panchasara, H. H. (2009). "Indian draught animals power".Veterinary World (2):404–407.
^Nicholson, Charles F.; Blake, Robert W.; Reid, Robin S.; Schelhas, John (2001). "Environmental Impacts of Livestock in the Developing World".Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development.43 (2):7–17.Bibcode:2001ESPSD..43b...7N.doi:10.1080/00139150109605120.S2CID133316829.
^"Diseases that affect cattle". Department of Agriculture, Environment and Rural Affairs. 26 April 2015. Retrieved14 February 2024.
^Donaldson, A. I.; Alexandersen, S.; Sorensen, J. H.; Mikkelsen, T. (May 2001). "Relative risks of the uncontrollable (airborne) spread of FMD by different species".Veterinary Record.148 (19):602–604.doi:10.1136/vr.148.19.602.PMID11386448.S2CID12025498.
^Çaylı, Ali M.; Arslan, Bilge (7 February 2022). "Analysis of the Thermal Environment and Determination of Heat Stress Periods for Dairy Cattle Under Eastern Mediterranean Climate Conditions".Journal of Biosystems Engineering.47:39–47.doi:10.1007/s42853-021-00126-6.S2CID246655199.
^Bradford, Scott A.; Segal, Eran; Zheng, Wei; Wang, Qiquan; Hutchins, Stephen R. (2008). "Reuse of Concentrated Animal Feeding Operation Wastewater on Agricultural Lands".Journal of Environmental Quality.37 (S5):S97 –S115.doi:10.2134/jeq2007.0393.PMID18765783.
^Archer, Steven R.; Andersen, Erik M.; Predick, Katharine I.; Schwinning, Susanne; Steidl, Robert J.; Woods, Steven R. (2017). "Woody Plant Encroachment: Causes and Consequences". In Briske, David D. (ed.).Rangeland Systems. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 25–84.doi:10.1007/978-3-319-46709-2_2.ISBN978-3-319-46707-8.
^Schwartzkopf-Genswein, K. S.; Stookey, J. M.; Welford, R. (1 August 1997). "Behavior of cattle during hot-iron and freeze branding and the effects on subsequent handling ease".Journal of Animal Science.75 (8):2064–2072.doi:10.2527/1997.7582064x.PMID9263052.
^Jha, D. N. (2002).The myth of the holy cow. London: Verso. pp. 20, 130.ISBN978-1-85984-676-6.
^"India Supreme Court suspends cattle slaughter ban". BBC News. 11 July 2017. Archived fromthe original on 14 July 2017. Retrieved7 March 2024.Cows are considered holy by India's majority Hindu population and slaughtering them is already banned in most but not all states,
Johns, Catherine (2011).Cattle: History, Myth, Art. London: The British Museum Press.ISBN978-0-7141-5084-0.
Oklahoma State University (OSU). 2006.Breeds of Cattle. Retrieved 5 January 2007.
Purdy, Herman R.; R. John Dawes; Robert Hough (2008).Breeds Of Cattle (2nd ed.). A visual textbook containing History/Origin, Phenotype & Statistics of 45 breeds.
Rath, S. 1998.The Complete Cow. Stillwater, MN: Voyageur Press.ISBN0-89658-375-9.
_Oeschinensee_Slaunger_2009-07-07.jpg)
_(cropped).jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.svg)
.jpg)
.svg)
![A legend claims that monks carrying the body of Saint Cuthbert were led by a milk maid who had lost her dun cow. They built Durham Cathedral where it was found.[166]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fwikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aUK_Durham_Dun-Cow.jpg)
.jpg)
.svg)
