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Turkey

Coordinates:39°55′N32°51′E / 39.917°N 32.850°E /39.917; 32.850
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected fromTürkiye)
Country in West Asia and Southeast Europe
This article is about the country. For the bird, seeTurkey (bird). For other uses, seeTurkey (disambiguation).
"Türkiye" redirects here. For other uses, seeTürkiye (disambiguation).

Republic of Türkiye
Türkiye Cumhuriyeti (Turkish)
Flag of Turkey
Anthem: 
İstiklal Marşı
"Independence March"[1]
Location of Turkey
CapitalAnkara
39°55′N32°51′E / 39.917°N 32.850°E /39.917; 32.850
Largest cityIstanbul
41°1′N28°57′E / 41.017°N 28.950°E /41.017; 28.950
Official languagesTurkish[2][3]
Spoken languages
  • Predominantly Turkish[4]
Ethnic groups
(2016)[5]
Demonym(s)
  • Turkish
  • Turk
GovernmentUnitarypresidential republic
Recep Tayyip Erdoğan
Cevdet Yılmaz
Numan Kurtulmuş
Kadir Özkaya
LegislatureGrand National Assembly
Establishment
c. 1299
19 May 1919
23 April 1920
1 November 1922
24 July 1923
29 October 1923
9 November 1982[6]
Area
• Total
783,562 km2 (302,535 sq mi) (36th)
• Water (%)
2.03[7]
Population
• December 2024 estimate
Neutral increase 85,664,944[8] (18th)
• Density
111.4[9]/km2 (288.5/sq mi) (83rd)
GDP (PPP)2024 estimate
• Total
Increase $3.457 trillion[10] (12th)
• Per capita
Increase $40,283[10] (54th)
GDP (nominal)2024 estimate
• Total
Increase $1.344 trillion[10] (17th)
• Per capita
Increase $15,666[10] (64th)
Gini (2021)Negative increase 44.4[11]
medium inequality
HDI (2022)Increase 0.855[12]
very high (45th)
CurrencyTurkish lira () (TRY)
Time zoneUTC+3 (TRT)
Calling code+90
ISO 3166 codeTR
Internet TLD.tr

Turkey,[a] officially theRepublic of Türkiye,[b] is a country mainly located inAnatolia inWest Asia, with a relatively small part calledEast Thrace inSoutheast Europe. It borders theBlack Sea to the north;Georgia,Armenia,Azerbaijan, andIran to the east;Iraq,Syria, and theMediterranean Sea to the south; and theAegean Sea,Greece, andBulgaria to the west. Turkey is home to over 85 million people;[8] most are ethnicTurks, while ethnicKurds are thelargest ethnic minority.[5] Officiallya secular state, Turkey hasa Muslim-majority population.Ankara is Turkey's capital andsecond-largest city.Istanbul is its largest city and economic center. Other major cities includeİzmir,Bursa, andAntalya.

First inhabited by modern humans during theLate Paleolithic,[13] present-day Turkey was home tovarious ancient peoples.[14] TheHattians were assimilated by theHittites and otherAnatolian peoples.[15]Classical Anatolia transitioned into culturalHellenization afterAlexander the Great's conquests, and laterRomanization during theRoman andByzantine eras.[16] TheSeljuk Turks began migrating into Anatolia in the 11th century, starting theTurkification process.[17] The SeljukSultanate of Rum ruled Anatolia until theMongol invasion in 1243, when it disintegrated intoTurkish principalities.[18] Beginning in 1299, theOttomans united the principalities andexpanded.Mehmed II conqueredConstantinople (modern-day Istanbul) in 1453. During the reigns ofSelim I andSuleiman the Magnificent, the Ottoman Empire became aglobal power.[19] From 1789 onwards, the empire saw major changes,reforms, centralization, andrising nationalism whileits territory declined.[20]

In the 19th and early 20th centuries,persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction andin the Russian Empire resulted in large-scale loss of life andmass migration into modern-day Turkey from theBalkans,Caucasus, andCrimea.[21] Under the control of theThree Pashas, the Ottoman Empireentered World War I in 1914, during which the Ottoman government committedgenocides against itsArmenian,Greek, andAssyrian subjects.[22][23][24] Following Ottoman defeat, theTurkish War of Independence resulted in theabolition of the sultanate and the signing of theTreaty of Lausanne. Turkey emerged as a more homogenousnation state.[25] The Republicwas proclaimed on 29 October 1923, modelled onthe reforms initiated by the country's first president,Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. Turkeyremained neutral during most of World War II, but was involved in theKorean War. Several military interventions interfered with the transition to a multi-party system.

Turkey is anupper-middle-income andemerging country;its economy is the world's17th-largest by nominal and12th-largest by PPP-adjusted GDP. It is aunitary presidentialrepublic. Turkey is a founding member of theOECD,G20, andOrganization of Turkic States. With a geopolitically significant location, Turkey is aregional power[26][27][28] and an early member ofNATO.An EU candidate, Turkey is part of theEU Customs Union,CoE,OIC, andTURKSOY.

Turkey has coastal plains,a high central plateau, and various mountain ranges;its climate is temperate with harsher conditions in the interior.[29] Home to threebiodiversity hotspots, Turkey is prone tofrequent earthquakes andis highly vulnerable to climate change.[30] Turkey hasa universal healthcare system, growingaccess to education, and increasing levels ofinnovativeness.[31] It is a leadingTV content exporter.[32] With numerous UNESCOWorld Heritage sites andintangible cultural heritage inscriptions, anda rich and diverse cuisine, Turkey is thefifth most visited country in the world.

Etymology

Turchia, meaning "the land of the Turks", had begun to be used in European texts forAnatolia by the end of the 12th century.[33][34][35] As a word inTurkic languages,Turk may mean "strong, strength, ripe" or "flourishing, in full strength".[36] It may also mean ripe as in for a fruit or "in the prime of life, young, and vigorous" for a person.[37] As anethnonym, the etymology is still unknown.[38] In addition to usage in languages such as Chinese in the 6th century,[35] the earliest mention ofTurk (𐱅𐰇𐰺𐰜,türü̲k̲; or𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰚,türk/tẄrk) in Turkic languages comes from theSecond Turkic Khaganate.[39]

InByzantine sources in the 10th century, the nameTourkia was used for defining two medieval states:Hungary (Western Tourkia); andKhazaria (Eastern Tourkia).[40][41] TheMamluk Sultanate, with its ruling elite of Turkic origin, was called the "State of the Turks" (Dawlat at-Turk, orDawlat al-Atrāk, orDawlat-at-Turkiyya).[42] Turkestan, also meaning the "land of the Turks", was used for a historic region inCentral Asia.[43]

Middle English usage ofTurkye orTurkeye is found inThe Book of the Duchess (written in 1369–1372) to refer to Anatolia or theOttoman Empire.[44] The modern spellingTurkey dates back to at least 1719.[45] Thebird called turkey was named as such due to trade ofguineafowl from Turkey to England.[35] The nameTurkey has been used in international treaties referring to the Ottoman Empire.[46] With theTreaty of Alexandropol, the nameTürkiye entered international documents for the first time. In the treaty signed withAfghanistan in 1921, the expressionDevlet-i Âliyye-i Türkiyye ("Sublime Turkish State") was used, likened to theOttoman Empire's name.[47]

In December 2021, PresidentRecep Tayyip Erdoğan called for expanded official usage ofTürkiye, saying thatTürkiye "represents and expresses the culture, civilization, and values of the Turkish nation in the best way".[48] In May 2022, the Turkish government requested theUnited Nations and other international organizations to useTürkiye officially in English; the UN agreed.[49][50][51]

History

Main article:History of Turkey
See also:History of Anatolia,History of Thrace, andAncient regions of Anatolia

Prehistory and ancient history

Main articles:Prehistory of Anatolia andPrehistory of Southeast Europe
See also:Hattians,Hittites,Luwians, andPala (Anatolia)
Somehenges atGöbekli Tepe were erected as far back as9600 BC, predating those ofStonehenge by over seven millennia.[52]
The Sphinx Gate ofHattusa, the capital of theHittites

Present-day Turkey has been inhabited bymodern humans since thelate Paleolithic period and contains some of the world's oldestNeolithic sites.[53][54]Göbekli Tepe is close to 12,000 years old.[53] Parts ofAnatolia include theFertile Crescent, anorigin of agriculture.[55] Other important Anatolian Neolithic sites includeÇatalhöyük andAlaca Höyük.[56] Neolithic Anatolian farmers differed genetically from farmers inIran andJordan Valley.[57] These early Anatolian farmers alsomigrated into Europe, starting around 9,000 years ago.[58][59][60]Troy's earliest layers go back to around 4500 BC.[56]

Anatolia's historical records start withclay tablets from approximately around 2000 BC that were found in modern-dayKültepe.[61] These tablets belonged to anAssyrian trade colony.[61] The languages in Anatolia at that time included Hattian, Hurrian,Hittite,Luwian, andPalaic.[62]Hattian was a language indigenous to Anatolia, with no known modern-day connections.[62][63]Hurrian language was used in northernSyria.[62] Hittite, Palaic, and Luwian languages were "the oldest writtenIndo-European languages",[64] forming theAnatolian sub-group.[65][c]

Hattian rulers were gradually replaced byHittite rulers.[61] The Hittite kingdom was a large kingdom in Central Anatolia, with its capital ofHattusa.[61] It co-existed in Anatolia withPalaians andLuwians, approximately between 1700 and 1200 BC.[61] As the Hittite kingdom was disintegrating, further waves of Indo-European peoples migrated from southeastern Europe, which was followed by warfare.[69] TheThracians were also present in modern-dayTurkish Thrace.[70] It is not known if theTrojan War is based on historical events.[71]Troy's Late Bronze Age layers matches most withIliad's story.[72]

Early classical antiquity

Main article:Classical Anatolia
See also:Phrygia,Lydia,Lycia,Caria,Urartu,Achaemenid Empire, andHellenistic period
Lycian Way is a 760 kilometers (470 mi) long hiking path in Southwestern Turkey.[73]

Around 750 BC,Phrygia had been established, with its two centers inGordium and modern-dayKayseri.[74]Phrygians spoke an Indo-European language, which was closer toGreek than Anatolian languages.[65] Phrygians shared Anatolia withNeo-Hittites andUrartu. Luwian-speakers were probably the majority in various Anatolian Neo-Hittite states.[75] Urartians spoke a non-Indo-European language and their capital was aroundLake Van.[76][74] Urartu and Phrygia fell in seventh century BC.[74][77] They were replaced byCarians,Lycians andLydians.[77] These three cultures "can be considered a reassertion of the ancient, indigenous culture of the Hattian cities of Anatolia".[77]

Before 1200 BC, there were four Greek-speaking settlements in Anatolia, includingMiletus.[78] Around 1000 BC,Greeks started migrating to the west coast of Anatolia. These eastern Greek settlements played a vital role in shaping the Archaic Greek civilization;[74][79] importantcities includedMiletus,Ephesus,Halicarnassus,Smyrna (nowİzmir) andByzantium (nowIstanbul), the latter founded by colonists fromMegara in the seventh century BCE.[80] These settlements were grouped asAeolis,Ionia, andDoris, after the specific Greek groups that settled them.[81][82] Further Greek colonization in Anatolia was led by Miletus andMegara in 750–480 BC.[83] The Greek cities along the Aegean prospered with trade, and saw remarkable scientific and scholarly accomplishments.[84]Thales andAnaximander from Miletus founded theIonian School of philosophy, thereby laying the foundations ofrationalism andWestern philosophy.[85]

TheLibrary of Celsus inEphesus was built by theRomans in 114–117.[86]

Cyrus attacked eastern Anatolia in 547 BC, andAchaemenid Empire eventuallyexpanded into western Anatolia.[77] In the east, theArmenian province was part of the Achaemenid Empire.[74] Following theGreco-Persian Wars, the Greek city-states of the Anatolian Aegean coast regained independence, but most of the interior stayed part of the Achaemenid Empire.[77] Two of theSeven Wonders of the Ancient World, theTemple of Artemis in Ephesus, and theMausoleum of Halicarnassus, were located in Anatolia.[87]

Following the victories of Alexander in334 BC and333 BC, the Achaemenid Empire collapsed and Anatolia became part of theMacedonian Empire.[77] This led to increasing cultural homogeneity andHellenization of the Anatolian interior,[88][89][90] which met resistance in some places.[91] Following Alexander's death, theSeleucids ruled large parts of Anatolia, while native Anatolian states emerged in the Marmara and Black Sea areas. In eastern Anatolia,the kingdom of Armenia appeared. In third century BC,Celts invaded central Anatolia and continued as a major ethnic group in the area for around 200 years. They were known as theGalatians.[92]

Rome and Byzantine Empire

Main articles:Classical Anatolia andByzantine Anatolia
See also:Roman Republic,Roman Empire,Christianity in Turkey, andByzantine Empire
TheEastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire in 555 underJustinian the Great, at its greatest extent

WhenPergamon requested assistance in its conflict with the Seleucids,Rome intervened in Anatolia in the second century BC. Without an heir, Pergamum's king left the kingdom to Rome, which was annexed asprovince of Asia. Roman influence grew in Anatolia afterwards.[93] FollowingAsiatic Vespers massacre, andMithridatic Wars withPontus, Rome emerged victorious. Around the 1st century BC,Rome expanded into parts of Pontus and Bithynia, while turning rest of Anatolian states into Roman satellites.[94] Severalconflicts with Parthians ensued, with peace and wars alternating.[95]

According toActs of the Apostles, early Christian Church had significant growth in Anatolia because ofSt Paul's efforts. Letters from St. Paul in Anatolia comprise theoldest Christian literature.[96] Under Roman authority,ecumenical councils such asCouncil of Nicaea (Iznik) in 325 served as a guide for developing "orthodox expressions of basic Christian teachings".[97]

TheHagia Sophia inConstantinople (nowIstanbul) was built by theEastern Roman emperorJustinian the Great in 532–537.[98]

The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of theRoman Empire centered inConstantinople duringLate Antiquity and theMiddle Ages. The eastern half of the Empire survived the conditions that caused thefall of the West in the 5th century AD, and continued to exist until thefall of Constantinople to theOttoman Empire in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire remained the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in theMediterranean world. The termByzantine Empire was only coined following the empire's demise; its citizens referred to the polity as the "Roman Empire" and to themselves asRomans. Due to the imperial seat's move from Rome toByzantium, theadoption of Christianity as the state religion, and the predominance ofGreek instead ofLatin, modern historians continue to make a distinction between the earlierRoman Empire and the laterByzantine Empire.[citation needed]

In the early Byzantine Empire period, the Anatolian coastal areas were Greek speaking. In addition to natives, interior Anatolia had diverse groups such asGoths,Celts,Persians andJews. Interior Anatolia had been "heavily Hellenized".[99]Anatolian languages eventually became extinct afterHellenization of Anatolia.[100]

Seljuks and Anatolian beyliks

Main articles:Seljuk Empire,Sultanate of Rum, andAnatolian beyliks
Further information:Turkic migration,Oghuz Turks, andTurkification
Seljuk Empire circa 1090, during the reign ofMalik Shah I. To the west, Anatolia was under the independent rule ofSuleiman ibn Qutalmish as theSultanate of Rum.

According to historians and linguists, theProto-Turkic language originated in Central-East Asia.[101] Initially, Proto-Turkic speakers were potentially both hunter-gatherers and farmers; they later becamenomadicpastoralists.[102] Early and medievalTurkic groups exhibited a wide range of both East Asian and West-Eurasian physical appearances and genetic origins, in part through long-term contact with neighboring peoples such asIranic,Mongolic,Tocharian,Uralic, andYeniseian peoples.[103] During the 9th and 10th centuries CE,the Oghuz were a Turkic group that lived in theCaspian andAral steppes.[104] Partly due to pressure from theKipchaks, the Oghuz migrated intoIran andTransoxiana.[104] They mixed with Iranic-speaking groups in the area and converted toIslam.[104] Oghuz Turks were also known as Turkmen orTurkoman.[105][104]

A map of independentTurkish principalities in Anatolia during the 14th century

The ruling family ofthe Seljuks originated from theKınık branch of the Oghuz Turks.[106] In 1040, the Seljuks defeated theGhaznavids at theBattle of Dandanaqan and established theSeljuk Empire inGreater Khorasan.[107]Baghdad, theAbbasid Caliphate's capital and center ofthe Islamic world, was taken by Seljuks in 1055.[105] Given the roleKhurasani traditions played in art, culture, and political traditions in the empire, the Seljuk period is described as a mixture of "Turkish, Persian and Islamic influences".[108] In the latter half of the 11th century, the Seljuk Turks began penetrating intomedieval Armenia and Anatolia.[105] At the time, Anatolia was a diverse and largely Greek-speaking region after previously beingHellenized.[109][110][99]

The Seljuk Turks defeated the Byzantines at theBattle of Manzikert in 1071, and later establishedthe Seljuk Sultanate of Rum.[111] During this period, there were alsoTurkish principalities such asDanishmendids.[112] Seljuk arrival started theTurkification process in Anatolia;[110][113] there were Turkic/Turkish migrations, intermarriages, and conversions into Islam.[114][115] The shift took several centuries and happened gradually.[116][117] Members ofIslamic mysticism orders, such asMevlevi Order, played a role in theIslamization of the diverse people of Anatolia.[118][119] Seljuk expansion was one of the reasons for theCrusades.[120] In 13th century, there was a second significant wave of Turkic migration, as people fledMongol expansion.[121][122] Seljuk sultanate was defeated by the Mongols at theBattle of Köse Dağ in 1243 and disappeared by the beginning of the 14th century. It was replaced by various Turkish principalities.[18][123]

Ottoman Empire

Main article:Ottoman Empire
TheOttoman Empire at its greatest European extent, in 1683, during theBattle of Vienna

Based aroundSöğüt,Ottoman Beylik was founded byOsman I in the early 14th century.[124] According to Ottoman chroniclers, Osman descended from theKayı tribe of theOghuz Turks.[125] Ottomans started annexing the nearby Turkish beyliks (principalities) in Anatolia and expanded into theBalkans.[126]Mehmed II completed Ottoman conquest of the Byzantine Empire bycapturing its capital, Constantinople, on 29 May 1453.[127]Selim I united Anatolia under Ottoman rule.[128] Turkification continued as Ottomans mixed with various indigenous people in Anatolia and the Balkans.[125]

The Ottoman Empire was a global power during the reigns ofSelim I andSuleiman the Magnificent.[128][129] In the 16th and 17th centuries,Sephardic Jews moved into Ottoman Empire following theirexpulsion from Spain.[130] From the second half of the 18th century onwards, theOttoman Empire began to decline. TheTanzimat reforms, initiated byMahmud II in 1839, aimed to modernize the Ottoman state in line with the progress that had been made in Western Europe. TheOttoman constitution of 1876 was the first among Muslim states, but wasshort-lived.[131][132]

Topkapı Palace andDolmabahçe Palace were the primary residences of theOttoman sultans inIstanbul between 1465 and 1856[133] and 1856 to 1922,[134] respectively.

As the empire gradually shrank in size, military power and wealth; especially after theOttoman economic crisis and default in 1875[135] which led to uprisings in the Balkan provinces that culminated in theRusso-Turkish War (1877–1878). The decline of the Ottoman Empire led to arise in nationalist sentiment among its various subject peoples, leading to increased ethnic tensions which occasionally burst into violence, such as theHamidian massacres ofArmenians, which claimed up to 300,000 lives.[136][better source needed] Ottoman territories in Europe (Rumelia) were lost in theFirst Balkan War (1912–1913).[137] Ottomans managed to recover some territory in Europe, such asEdirne, in theSecond Balkan War (1913).

In the 19th and early 20th centuries,persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction andin the Russian Empire resulted in estimated 5 million deaths,[138][139] with the casualties including Turks.[139] Five to seven or seven to nine millionrefugees migrated into modern-day Turkey from theBalkans,Caucasus,Crimea, andMediterranean islands,[140] shifting the center of the Ottoman Empire to Anatolia.[141] In addition to a small number of Jews, the refugees were overwhelmingly Muslim; they were both Turkish and non-Turkish people, such asCircassians andCrimean Tatars.[142][143]Paul Mojzes has called the Balkan Wars an "unrecognized genocide", where multiple sides were both victims and perpetrators.[144] Circassian refugees included the survivors of theCircassian genocide.[145]

Following the1913 coup d'état, theThree Pashas took control of the Ottoman government. The Ottoman Empire enteredWorld War I on the side of theCentral Powers and was ultimately defeated.[146] During the war, the empire's Armenian subjects weredeported to Syria as part of theArmenian genocide. As a result, an estimated 600,000[147] to more than 1 million,[147] or up to 1.5 million[148][149][150]Armenians were killed. The Turkish government hasrefused to acknowledge[151][152] the events as genocide and states that Armenians were only"relocated" from the eastern war zone.[153]Genocidal campaigns were also committed against the empire's other minority groups such as theAssyrians andGreeks.[154][155][156] Following theArmistice of Mudros in 1918, the victoriousAllied Powers sought thepartition of the Ottoman Empire through the 1920Treaty of Sèvres.[157]

Republic of Türkiye

Main article:History of the Republic of Turkey
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, thefounder and thefirst President of the Turkish Republic

Theoccupation of Istanbul (1918) andİzmir (1919) by theAllies in the aftermath of World War I initiated theTurkish National Movement. Under the leadership ofMustafa Kemal Pasha, a military commander who had distinguished himself during theBattle of Gallipoli, theTurkish War of Independence (1919–1923) was waged with the aim of revoking the terms of theTreaty of Sèvres (1920).[158]

TheTurkish Provisional Government inAnkara, which had declared itself the legitimate government of the country on23 April 1920, started to formalize the legal transition from the old Ottoman into the new Republican political system. The Ankara Government engaged in armed and diplomatic struggle. In 1921–1923, the Armenian, Greek, French, and British armies had been expelled.[159][160][161][162] The military advance and diplomatic success of the Ankara Government resulted in the signing of theArmistice of Mudanya on 11 October 1922. On 1 November 1922, the Turkish Parliament in Ankara formally abolished the Sultanate, thus ending 623 years ofmonarchical Ottoman rule.

TheTreaty of Lausanne of 24 July 1923, which superseded the Treaty of Sèvres,[157][158] led to the international recognition of the sovereignty of the new Turkish state as the successor state of the Ottoman Empire. On 4 October 1923, the Allied occupation of Turkey ended with the withdrawal of the last Allied troops fromIstanbul. The Turkish Republic was officially proclaimed on 29 October 1923 in Ankara, the country's new capital.[163] TheLausanne Convention stipulated apopulation exchange between Greece and Turkey.[164]

Anıtkabir inAnkara was completed in 1953 to become the mausoleum ofMustafa Kemal Atatürk

Mustafa Kemal became the republic's firstpresident and introducedmany reforms. The reforms aimed to transform the oldreligion-based and multi-communal Ottoman monarchy into a Turkishnation state that would be governed as aparliamentary republic under asecular constitution.[165] Women gained the right to vote nationally in 1934.[166] With theSurname Law, theTurkish Parliament bestowed upon Kemal the honorific surname "Atatürk" (Father Turk).[158] Atatürk's reforms caused discontent in someKurdish andZaza tribes leading to theSheikh Said rebellion in 1925[167] and theDersim rebellion in 1937.[168]

İsmet İnönü became the country's second president following Atatürk's death in 1938. In 1939, theRepublic of Hatay voted in favor of joining Turkey with a referendum. Turkeyremained neutral during almost all ofWorld War II,[169] but entered the war on the side of theAllies on23 February 1945.[170] Later that year, Turkey became acharter member of the United Nations.[171] In 1950 Turkey became a member of theCouncil of Europe. After fighting as part of theUN forces in theKorean War, Turkey joinedNATO in 1952, becoming a bulwark against Soviet expansion into theMediterranean.

Tansu Çiller, Turkey's first female prime minister, attends aEuropean Commission meeting in January 1994

Military coups or memorandums, which happened in1960,1971,1980, and1997, complicated Turkey's transition to a democraticmultiparty system.[172][173] Between 1960 and the end of the 20th century, the prominent leaders in Turkish politics who achieved multiple election victories wereSüleyman Demirel,Bülent Ecevit andTurgut Özal.[citation needed] PKK started a "campaign of terrorist attacks on civilian and military targets" in the 1980s.[174] It is designated as aterrorist organization by Turkey,[175] the United States,[176] and the European Union.[177]Tansu Çiller became the first female prime minister of Turkey in 1993. Turkey applied for full membership of theEEC in 1987, joined theEuropean Union Customs Union in 1995 and startedaccession negotiations with theEuropean Union in 2005.[178][179] Customs Union had an important impact on the Turkish manufacturing sector.[180][181]

In 2014, prime minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan won Turkey's first directpresidential election.[182] On 15 July 2016, anunsuccessful coup attempt tried to oust the government.[183] According to the Turkish government, there are 13,251 arrested or convicted people in jail as of 2024, related to the 2016 coup attempt.[184][185] With areferendum in 2017, the parliamentary republic was replaced by anexecutive presidential system. The office of the prime minister was abolished, and its powers and duties were transferred to the president. On the referendum day, while the voting was still underway, theSupreme Electoral Council lifted a rule that required each ballot to have an official stamp.[186] The opposition parties claimed that as many as 2.5 millionballots without a stamp were accepted as valid.[186] In 2025 the PKK declared a ceasefire.[187]

Administrative divisions

Main article:Administrative divisions of Turkey
Further information:Regions of Turkey andNUTS of Turkey

Turkey is aunitary state. Its administrative system includes central and local administration. Central administration consists of thecentral government inAnkara, and local departments such as 81provinces andtheir subdivisions. Local administration authorities consist of metropolitan municipalities, municipalities, neighborhoods or villages, and special provincial administrations. For economic and geographic reasons, Turkey is also categorized intoseven regions and 21 sub-regions.[188]

Government and politics

Main articles:Government of Turkey,Politics of Turkey, andConstitution of Turkey
See also:Law enforcement in Turkey
The Presidential Complex
ThePresidential Complex, residence and workplace of thePresident of Turkey

Turkey is apresidential republic within amulti-party system.[189] Thecurrent constitution wasadopted in 1982.[190] In the Turkish unitary system, citizens are subject tothree levels of government: national, provincial, and local. Thelocal government's duties are commonly split betweenmunicipal governments and districts, in which the executive and legislative officials are elected by aplurality vote of citizens by district.[citation needed] The government comprises three branches: first is thelegislative branch, which isGrand National Assembly of Turkey;[191] second is theexecutive branch, which is thePresident of Turkey;[192] and third is thejudicial branch, which includes theConstitutional Court, theCourt of Cassation andCourt of Jurisdictional Disputes.[193][6]

The Parliament has 600 seats, distributed among the provincesproportionally to the population. The Parliament and the president serve a five-year terms, with elections on the same day. The president iselected bydirect vote and cannot run for re-election after two terms, unless the parliament calls early presidential elections during the second term.[citation needed] The Constitutional Court is composed of 15 members, elected for single 12-year terms. They are obliged to retire when they are over the age of 65.[194] Turkish politics have become increasingly associated withdemocratic backsliding, being described as acompetitive authoritarian system.[195][196]

Parties and elections

Main articles:Elections in Turkey,Political parties in Turkey, andElectoral cycle of Turkey
Results of the2024 Turkish local elections

Elections in Turkey are held for six functions of government:presidential (national), parliamentary (national),municipality mayors (local), district mayors (local), provincial ormunicipal council members (local), andmuhtars (local).Referendums are also held occasionally. Every Turkish citizen who has turned 18 has theright to vote and stand as a candidate at elections.[citation needed]Universal suffrage for both sexes has been applied throughout Turkey since 1934.[197] In Turkey,turnout rates of both local and general elections are high compared to many other countries, which usually stands higher than 80%.[citation needed] PresidentRecep Tayyip Erdoğan is currently serving as thehead of state andhead of government.[198][199]Özgür Özel is theMain Opposition Leader. The lastparliamentary andpresidential elections were in 2023.

The Constitutional Court can strip the public financing ofpolitical parties that it deemsanti-secular or having ties toterrorism, or ban their existence altogether.[200][201] Theelectoral threshold for political parties at national level is seven percent of the votes.[202] Smaller parties can avoid the electoral threshold by forming an alliance with other parties.Independent candidates are not subject to an electoral threshold.

On the right side of the Turkishpolitical spectrum, parties like theDemocrat Party,Justice Party,Motherland Party, andJustice and Development Party became the most popular political parties in Turkey, winning numerous elections. Turkishright-wing parties are more likely to embrace the principles of political ideologies such asconservatism,nationalism orIslamism.[203] On the left side of the spectrum, parties like theRepublican People's Party,Social Democratic Populist Party andDemocratic Left Party once enjoyed the largest electoral success.Left-wing parties are more likely to embrace the principles ofsocialism,Kemalism orsecularism.[204]

Law

Main article:Judicial system of Turkey
TheCourt of Cassation is the final court for reviewing verdicts given by courts of criminal and civil justice.

With the founding of the Republic, Turkey adopted acivil law legal system, replacingSharia-derivedOttoman law. TheCivil Code, adopted in 1926, was based on theSwiss Civil Code of 1907 and theSwiss Code of Obligations of 1911. Although it underwent a number of changes in 2002, it retains much of the basis of the original Code. TheCriminal Code, originally based on theItalian Criminal Code, was replaced in 2005 by a Code with principles similar to theGerman Penal Code and German law generally.Administrative law is based on the French equivalent andprocedural law generally shows the influence of the Swiss, German and French legal systems.[205] Islamic principles do not play a part in the legal system.[206]

Law enforcement in Turkey is carried out by several agencies under the jurisdiction of theMinistry of Internal Affairs. These agencies are theGeneral Directorate of Security, theGendarmerie General Command and theCoast Guard Command.[207] In the years of government by the Justice and Development Party and Erdoğan, particularly since 2013, the independence and integrity of the Turkish judiciary has increasingly been said to be in doubt by institutions, parliamentarians and journalists both within and outside of Turkey, because of political interference in the promotion of judges and prosecutors and in their pursuit of public duty.[208][209][210]

Foreign relations

Main article:Foreign relations of Turkey
Turkey has been a member ofNATO since 1952, has its second largest army and is the host of theAllied Land Command headquarters.

Turkey's constant foreign policy goal is to pursue its national interests. These interests are mainly growing the economy, and maintaining security frominternal terrorist and external threats.[211] After the establishment of the Republic,Atatürk andİnönü followed the "peace at home, peace in the world" principle until theCold War's start.[212] Followingthreats from the Soviet Union, Turkey sought toally with the United States and joinedNATO in 1952.[213][214] Overall, Turkey aims for good relations withCentral Asia, theCaucasus, Russia, theMiddle East, and Iran. With the West, Turkey also aims to keep its arrangements.[215] By trading with the east and joining the EU, Turkey pursues economic growth.[215] Turkey joined theEuropean Union Customs Union in 1995,[216] butits EU accession talks are frozen as of 2024.[217]

Members and observers of theOrganization of Turkic States

Turkey has been called an emerging power,[218] amiddle power,[219] and aregional power.[220] Turkey has sought closer relations with the Central Asian Turkic states after the breakup of the Soviet Union.[221] Closerrelations with Azerbaijan, a culturally close country, was achieved.[221] Turkey is a founding member of theInternational Organization of Turkic Culture andOrganization of Turkic States.[222][223] It is also a member ofOrganization for Security and Cooperation in Europe,Council of Europe, andOrganisation of Islamic Cooperation.[224]

Following theArab Spring, Turkey had problems with countries such as United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, and Egypt.[225] Relations with these countries have improved since then.[225][226][227] The exception is Syria, with which Turkey had cut its relations after the start of theSyrian civil war.[228] There are disputeswith Greece over maritime boundaries andwith Cyprus.[229]

In 2018, the Turkish military and the Turkish-backed forces began anoperation in Syria aimed at ousting US-backedYPG (which Turkey considers to be an offshoot of the outlawedPKK)[230][231] from the enclave ofAfrin.[232][233] Turkey has also conducted airstrikes inIraqi Kurdistan, which was criticized by Iraq for violating its sovereignty and killing civilians.[234]Diplomatic relations with Israel were damaged after theGaza flotilla raid,[235] normalized in 2016,[236] and cut again following theIsraeli invasion of the Gaza Strip.[237] In 2024, Turkey stopped trading with Israel.[237]

Military

Main article:Turkish Armed Forces
See also:Turkish Land Forces,Turkish Naval Forces, andTurkish Air Force
TheTAI TF Kaan is currently being produced byTurkish Aerospace Industries for theTurkish Air Force.[238][239][240]

TheTurkish Armed Forces are responsible for defense against foreign threats. While the Commander-in-Chief is the President,General Staff,Air Force,Naval Force, andLand Force usually report to the Minister of National Defence.[241] TheGendarmerie General Command and theCoast Guard Command are under the jurisdiction of theMinistry of the Interior.[242]Military service is required for 6–12 months for men,[243] which is reduced to one month after paying a fee.[244] Turkey does not recognizeconscientious objection and does not offer acivilian alternative to military service.[245]

Baykar Kızılelma UCAV onTCG Anadolu

Turkey has thesecond-largest standing military force in NATO, after theUnited States, with an estimated strength of 890,700 military personnel as of February 2022.[246] As part of thenuclear sharing policy of NATO, Turkey hosts approximately 20 United StatesB61 nuclear bombs at theIncirlik Air Base.[247][248] The Turkish Armed Forces have a relatively substantial military presence abroad,[249] withmilitary bases inAlbania,[250]Iraq,[251]Qatar,[252] andSomalia.[253] The country also maintains a force of36,000 troops inNorthern Cyprus since 1974.[254]

Turkey has participated in international missions under the United Nations and NATOsince the Korean War, includingpeacekeeping missions inSomalia,Yugoslavia and theHorn of Africa. It supportedcoalition forces in theFirst Gulf War, contributed military personnel to theInternational Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan, and remains active inKosovo Force,Eurocorps andEU Battlegroups.[255][256] As of 2016, Turkey has assistedPeshmerga forces in northernIraq and theSomali Armed Forces with security and training.[257][258]

Human rights

Main article:Human rights in Turkey
Women demonstrating and asking for non-interference with their clothing inKadıköy,Istanbul[259]

Article 2 of the Turkish Constitution includes references to upholding the rule of law and human rights.[260] In the 2000s, legal changes were made for public use of and teaching in the Kurdish language. This included opening aKurdish-language national TV channel. Various "openings" were made to address concerns of minorities such asAlevi,ethnic Kurds, andethnic Romani people.[261] Sentences for violence against women were strengthened.[261]

In 2013,widespread protests erupted, sparked by a plan to demolishGezi Park but soon growing into general anti-government dissent.[262] On 20 May 2016, the Turkish parliament stripped almost a quarter of its members of immunity from prosecution, including 101 deputies from the pro-KurdishHDP and the main oppositionCHP party.[263][264] According to theCommittee to Protect Journalists, there are 13 jailed journalists in Turkey.[265] In its 2023 report, theEuropean Commission criticized how democratic institutions in Turkey operate.[266] The criticism was rejected by Turkey.[267] As of 2023, Turkey was the country with the highest number ofEuropean Court of Human Rights cases.[268]

Istanbul Pride was organized in 2003 for the first time. Since 2015, parades in Istanbul have been denied permission by the government.[269]

Prior to 1858, Ottoman Empire had "a lenient legal accommodation of same-sex intimacy". When prosecuted, the punishment was monetary fines. In 1858, the 1810 French Penal Code was adopted by the Ottomans, which had no penalties for same-sex intimacy that is private.[270] Under the Republic, same sex acts have never been criminalized.[271] However, LGBT people in Turkey face discrimination, harassment and even violence.[272] In a survey conducted in 2016, 33% of respondents said that LGBT people should have equal rights, which increased to 45% in 2020. Another survey in 2018 found that the proportion of people who would not want a homosexual neighbor decreased from 55% in 2018 to 47% in 2019.[273][274]

When the annualIstanbul Pride was inaugurated in 2003, Turkey became the first Muslim-majority country to hold a gay pride march.[275] Since 2015, parades atTaksim Square andİstiklal Avenue have been denied government permission, citing security concerns, but hundreds of people have defied the ban each year.[269] The bans were criticized.[269]

Geography

Main article:Geography of Turkey
See also:List of national parks of Turkey
Topographic map of Turkey

Turkey covers an area of 783,562 square kilometres (302,535 square miles).[276] WithTurkish straits andSea of Marmara in between, Turkey bridgesWestern Asia andSoutheastern Europe.[277] Turkey's Asian side covers 97% of its surface, and is often calledAnatolia.[278] Another definition of Anatolia's eastern boundary is an imprecise line from theBlack Sea toGulf of Iskenderun.[279]Eastern Thrace, Turkey's European side, includes around 10% of the population and covers 3% of the surface area.[280] The country is encircled by seas on three sides: theAegean Sea to the west, the Black Sea to the north and theMediterranean Sea to the south.[281] Turkey is bordered by Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Iran to the east.[281] To the south, it's bordered by Syria and Iraq.[282] To the north, its Thracian area is bordered by Greece and Bulgaria.[281]

Turkey is divided into "seven major regions":Marmara,Aegean,Central Anatolia,Black Sea,Eastern Anatolia,Southeastern Anatolia and theMediterranean.[281] As a general trend, the inlandAnatolian Plateau becomes increasingly rugged as it progresses eastward.[283] Mountain ranges includeKöroğlu andPontic mountain ranges to the north, and theTaurus Mountains to the south. TheLakes Region contains some of the largest lakes in Turkey such asLake Beyşehir andLake Eğirdir.

Tectonic map of Turkey.[284] Straight lines and lines with triangles denote different types offaults, such asNorth Anatolian Fault andEast Anatolian Fault.

Geographers have used the eastern Anatolian plateau, Iranian plateau, andArmenian plateau terms to refer to the mountainous area around whereArabian andEurasian tectonic plates merge. The eastern Anatolian plateau and Armenian plateau definitions largely overlap.[285] TheEastern Anatolia Region containsMount Ararat, Turkey's highest point at 5,137 metres (16,854 feet),[286] andLake Van, the largest lake in the country.[287] Eastern Turkey is home to the sources of rivers such as theEuphrates,Tigris andAras. TheSoutheastern Anatolia Region includes the northern plains ofUpper Mesopotamia.

Earthquakes happen frequently in Turkey.[288] Almost the entire population lives in areas with varying seismic risk levels, with around 70% in highest or second-highest seismic areas.[289][290]Anatolian plate is bordered byNorth Anatolian Fault zone to the north;East Anatolian Fault zone and Bitlis–Zagros collision zone to the east;Hellenic and Cyprus subduction zones to the south; andAegean extensional zone to the west.[291] After1999 İzmit and1999 Düzce earthquakes, North Anatolian Fault zone activity "is considered to be one of the most dangerous natural hazards in Turkey".[292]2023 Turkey–Syria earthquakes were the deadliest in contemporary Turkish history.[293] Turkey is sometimes unfavorably compared toChile, a country with a similardevelopmental level that is more successful withearthquake preparedness.[294][295][296]

Biodiversity

Main articles:Wildlife of Turkey,Fauna of Turkey, andFlora and vegetation of Turkey
See also:Environmental issues in Turkey
A whiteTurkish Angora cat withodd eyes (heterochromia), which is common among the Angoras

Turkey's position at the crossroads of the land, sea and air routes between the threeOld World continents and the variety of the habitats acrossits ecoregions have produced considerable species diversity and a vibrant ecosystem.[297] Out of the 36biodiversity hotspots in the world, Turkey includes 3 of them.[298] These are theMediterranean,Irano-Anatolian, andCaucasus hotspots.[298]

Theforests of Turkey are home to theTurkey oak. The most commonly found species of the genusPlatanus (plane) is theorientalis. TheTurkish pine (Pinus brutia) is mostly found in Turkey and other east Mediterranean countries. Several wild species oftulip are native to Anatolia, and the flower was firstintroduced to Western Europe with species taken from the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.[299][300]

There are40 national parks, 189 nature parks, 31 nature preserve areas, 80 wildlife protection areas and 109 nature monuments in Turkey such asGallipoli Peninsula Historical National Park,Mount Nemrut National Park,Ancient Troy National Park,Ölüdeniz Nature Park andPolonezköy Nature Park.[301] TheNorthern Anatolian conifer and deciduous forests is anecoregion which covers most of the Pontic Mountains in northern Turkey, while theCaucasus mixed forests extend across the eastern end of the range. The region is home to Eurasian wildlife such as theEurasian sparrowhawk,golden eagle,eastern imperial eagle,lesser spotted eagle,Caucasian black grouse,red-fronted serin, andwallcreeper.[302]

TheAnatolian leopard is still found in very small numbers in the northeastern and southeastern regions of Turkey.[303][304] TheEurasian lynx, theEuropean wildcat and thecaracal are otherfelid species which are found in the forests of Turkey. TheCaspian tiger, now extinct, lived in the easternmost regions of Turkey until the latter half of the 20th century.[303][305] Renowned domestic animals from Ankara include theAngora cat,Angora rabbit andAngora goat; and fromVan Province theVan cat. The national dog breeds are theKangal (Anatolian Shepherd),Malaklı andAkbaş.[306]

Climate

Main article:Climate of Turkey
See also:Climate change in Turkey
Köppen climate types of Turkey for the 1980–2016 period[307]

The coastal areas of Turkey bordering the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas have atemperateMediterranean climate, with hot, dry summers and mild to cool, wet winters.[308] The coastal areas bordering the Black Sea have a temperateoceanic climate with warm, wet summers and cool to cold, wet winters.[308] The Turkish Black Sea coast receives the most precipitation and is the only region of Turkey that receives high precipitation throughout the year.[308] The eastern part of the Black Sea coast averages 2,200 millimetres (87 in) annually which is the highest precipitation in the country.[308] The coastal areas bordering the Sea of Marmara, which connects the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea, have a transitional climate between a temperate Mediterranean climate and a temperate oceanic climate with warm to hot, moderately dry summers and cool to cold, wet winters.[308]

dried cracked mud with sparse metre-high green plants
Lake Marmara has almost dried out due toclimate change in Turkey that has resulted in the redirecting of water for irrigation and drinking purposes.[309]

Snow falls on the coastal areas of the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea almost every winter but usually melts in no more than a few days.[308] However, snow is rare in the coastal areas of the Aegean Sea and very rare in the coastal areas of the Mediterranean Sea.[308] Winters on the Anatolian plateau are especially severe. Temperatures of −30 to −40 °C (−22 to −40 °F) do occur in northeastern Anatolia, and snow may lie on the ground for at least 120 days of the year, and during the entire year on the summits of the highest mountains. In central Anatolia the temperatures can drop below −20 °C (−4 °F) with the mountains being even colder. Mountains close to the coast prevent Mediterranean influences from extending inland, giving the central Anatolian Plateau acontinental climate with sharply contrasting seasons.[308]

Due to socioeconomic, climatic, and geographic factors, Turkey is highlyvulnerable to climate change.[310] This applies to nine out of ten climate vulnerability dimensions, such as "average annual risk to wellbeing".[310]OECD median is two out of ten.[310] Inclusive and swift growth is needed for decreasing vulnerability.[311] Turkey aims to achievenet zero emissions by 2053.[312] Accomplishing climate goals would require large investments, but would also result in net economic benefits, broadly due to reduced imports of fuel and due to better health from lowering air pollution.[313]

Economy

Main article:Economy of Turkey
See also:Tourism in Turkey
Togg T10S sedan produced byTogg,[314] aTurkish automotive company which manufactureselectric vehicles[315][316][317]

Turkey is anupper-middle-income country and anemerging market.[290][318] A founding member of theOECD andG20, it is the17th-largest economy by nominal and the12th-largest economy byPPP-adjusted GDP in the world.[319] It is classified amongnewly industrialized countries.Services account for the majority of GDP, whereas industry accounts for more than 30%.[320] Agriculture contributes about 7%.[320] According toIMF estimates, Turkey's GDP per capita by PPP is $40,283 in 2024, while its nominal GDP per capita is $15,666.[319]Foreign direct investment in Turkey peaked at $22.05 billion in 2007 and dropped to $13.09 billion in 2022.[321] Potential growth is weakened by long-lasting structural and macro obstacles, such as slow rates of productivity growth and high inflation.[290]

Turkey has a diversified economy; main industries include automobiles, electronics, textiles, construction, steel, mining, and food processing.[320] It is amajor agricultural producer.[322] Turkey ranks8th in crude steel production, and13th in motor vehicle production, ship building (bytonnage), and annual industrial robot installation in the world.[323]Turkish automative companies includeTEMSA,Otokar,BMC andTogg. Togg is the first all-electric vehicle company of Turkey.Arçelik,Vestel, andBeko are major manufacturers of consumer electronics.[324] Arçelik is one of the largest producers of household goods in the world.[325] In 2022, Turkey ranked second in the world in terms of the number of international contractors in the top 250 list.[326] It is also the fifth largest in the world in terms of textile exports.[327]Turkish Airlines is one of thelargest airlines in the world.

Gulf of Antalya inTurkish Riviera.Antalya is the fourth most visited city in the world.[328]

Between 2007 and 2021, the share of population below the PPP-$6.85 per dayinternational poverty threshold declined from 20% to 7.6%.[290] In 2023, 13.9% of the population was below the national at-risk-of-poverty rate.[329] In 2021, 34% of the population were at risk of poverty or social exclusion, usingEurostat definition.[330] Unemployment in Turkey was 10.4% in 2022.[331] In 2021, it was estimated that 47% of total disposable income was received by the top 20% of income earners, while the lowest 20% received only 6%.[332]

Tourism accounts for about 8% of Turkey's GDP.[333] In 2022, Turkeyranked fifth in the world in the number of international tourist arrivals with 50.5 million foreign tourists.[334] Turkey has21 UNESCO World Heritage Sites and84 World Heritage Sites in tentative list. Turkey is home to 519Blue Flag beaches, third most in the world.[335] According toEuromonitor International report, Istanbul is the most visited city in the world, with more than 20.2 million foreign visitors in 2023.[328] Antalya has surpassedParis andNew York to become the fourth most visited city in the world, with more than 16.5 million foreign visitors.[328]

Infrastructure

Main articles:Energy in Turkey,Renewable energy in Turkey, andTransport in Turkey
See also:Communications in Turkey andWater supply and sanitation in Turkey
Keban Dam inElazığ Province on theEuphrates. In 2019, Turkey generated 29.2% of its electricity fromhydroelectricity.[336]

Turkey is the15th largest electricity and13th largest renewable electricity producer in the world.Turkey's energy generation capacity increased significantly, withelectricity generation from renewable sources tripling in the past decade.[337][338] It produced 43.8% ofits electricity from such sources in 2019.[339] Turkey is also thefourth-largest producer ofgeothermal power in the world.[340] Turkey's first nuclear power station,Akkuyu, will increase diversification of its energy mix.[341] When it comes tototal final consumption, fossil fuels still play a large role, accounting for 73%.[342] A major reason ofTurkey's greenhouse gas emissions is thelarge proportion of coal in the energy system.[343] As of 2017, while the government had invested in low carbon energy transition,fossil fuels were still subsidized.[344] By 2053, Turkey aims to havenet zero emissions.[312]

The main terminal ofIstanbul Airport has an annual passenger capacity of 90 million and is theworld's largest terminal building under a single roof.

Turkey has made security of its energy supply a top priority, given its heavy reliance on gas and oil imports.[341] Turkey's main energy supply sources areRussia, West Asia, and Central Asia.[215]Gas production began in 2023 in the recently discoveredSakarya gas field. When fully operational, it will supply about 30% of the natural gas needed domestically.[345][346] Turkey aims to become a hub for regional energy transportation.[347] Several oil and gas pipelines span the country, including theBlue Stream,TurkStream, andBaku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipelines.[347]

As of 2023, Turkey has 3,726 kilometers ofcontrolled-access highways and 29,373 kilometers ofdivided highways.[348] Multiple bridges and tunnels connect Asian and European sides of Turkey; theÇanakkale 1915 Bridge on theDardanelles strait is thelongest suspension bridge in the world.[349]Marmaray andEurasia tunnels under theBosporus connect both sides of Istanbul.[350] TheOsman Gazi Bridge connects the northern and southern shores of theGulf of İzmit.

Turkish State Railways operates both conventional and high speed trains, with the government expanding both.[351]High-speed rail lines include theAnkara-Istanbul,Ankara-Konya, andAnkara-Sivas routes.[352]Istanbul Metro is the largest subway network in the country with around 704 million annual ridership in 2019.[353] There are115 airports as of 2024.[354]Istanbul Airport is one of thetop 10 busiest airports in the world. Turkey aims to become a transportation hub.[355][356] It is part of various routes that connect Asia and Europe, includingthe Middle Corridor.[356] In 2024, Turkey, Iraq, UAE, and Qatar signed an agreement to link Iraqi port facilities to Turkey via road and rail connections.[357]

Science and technology

Main article:Science and technology in Turkey
See also:Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey
Göktürk-1,Göktürk-2 andGöktürk-3 are theEarth observation satellites of theTurkish Ministry of National Defense, while state-ownedTürksat operates theTürksat series ofcommunications satellites.

Turkey's spending onresearch and development as a share of GDP has risen from 0.47% in 2000 to 1.40% in 2021.[358]Turkey ranks 16th in the world in terms of article output in scientific and technical journals, and 35th inNature Index.[359][360] Turkish patent office ranks 21st worldwide in overall patent applications, and 3rd in industrial design applications. Vast majority of applicants to the Turkish patent office are Turkish residents. In all patent offices globally,Turkish residents rank 21st for overall patent applications.[361] In 2024, Turkey ranked 37th in the world and 3rd among its upper-middle income group in theGlobal Innovation Index.[362]

TÜBİTAK is one of the main agencies for funding and carrying out research.[363][364]Turkey's space program plans to develop anational satellite launch system, and to improve capabilities in space exploration, astronomy, and satellite communication.[364] Under theGöktürk Program,Turkish Space Systems, Integration and Test Center was built.[365] Turkey's first communication satellite manufactured domestically,Türksat 6A, will be launched in 2024.[366] As part of a plannedparticle accelerator center, an electron accelerator called TARLA became operational in 2024.[367][368]An Antarctic research station is planned onHorseshoe Island.[369]

Turkey is considered a significant power inunmanned aerial vehicles.[370]Aselsan,Turkish Aerospace Industries,Roketsan, and Asfat are among the top 100 defense companies in the world.[371] Turkish defense companies spend a significant portion of their budgets for research and development.[372] Aselsan also invests in research inquantum technology.[373]

Demographics

Main article:Demographics of Turkey
See also:Turkish people
Istanbul is Turkey's largest city,[374] and its economic and financial center.

According to theAddress-Based Population Recording System, the country's population was 85,372,377 in 2023, excluding Syrians under temporary protection.[8] 93% lived inprovince and district centers.[8] People within the 15–64 and 0–14 age groups corresponded to 68.3% and 21.4% of the total population, respectively. Those aged 65 years or older made up 10.2%.[8] Between 1950 and 2020, Turkey's population more than quadrupled from 20.9 million to 83.6 million;[375] however, the population growth rate was 0.1% in 2023.[8] In 2023, thetotal fertility rate was 1.51 children per woman,below the replacement rate of 2.10 per woman.[376] In a 2018 health survey, the ideal children number was 2.8 children per woman, rising to 3 per married woman.[377]

Ethnicity and language

See also:Turkish people,Minorities in Turkey,Languages of Turkey, andTurkish language
Percentage ofethnic Kurds in Turkey by region[378]

Article 66 of theTurkish Constitution defines aTurk as anyone who is a citizen.[379] It is estimated that there are at least 47 ethnic groups represented in Turkey.[380] Reliable data on the ethnic mix of the population is not available because census figures do not include statistics on ethnicity after the1965 Turkish census.[381] According tothe World Factbook, 70–75% of the country's citizens are ethnic Turks.[5] Based on a survey,KONDA's estimation was 76% in 2006, with 78% of adult citizens self-identifying their ethnic background asTurk.[382] In 2021, 77% of adult citizens identified as such in a survey.[383]

Kurds are the largest ethnic minority.[384] Their exact numbers remain disputed,[384] with estimates ranging from 12 to 20% of the population.[385] The Kurds make up a majority in the provinces ofAğrı,Batman,Bingöl,Bitlis,Diyarbakır,Hakkari,Iğdır,Mardin,Muş,Siirt,Şırnak,Tunceli andVan; a near majority inŞanlıurfa (47%); and a large minority inKars (20%).[386] In addition, internal migration has resulted inKurdish diaspora communities in all of the major cities in central and western Turkey. In Istanbul, there are an estimated three million Kurds, making it the city with the largest Kurdish population in the world.[387] 19% of adult citizens identified as ethnic Kurds in a survey in 2021.[383] Some people have multiple ethnic identities, such as both Turk and Kurd.[388][389] In 2006, an estimated 2.7 million ethnic Turks and Kurds were related from interethnic marriages.[390]

Areas with speakers ofTurkic languages

According to the World Factbook, non-Kurdish ethnic minorities are 7–12% of the population.[5] In 2006, KONDA estimated that non-Kurdish and non-Zaza ethnic minorities constituted 8.2% of the population; these were people that gave general descriptions such as Turkish citizen, people withother Turkic backgrounds,Arabs, and others.[382] In 2021, 4% of adult citizens identified as non-ethnic Turk or non-ethnic Kurd in a survey.[383] According to the Constitutional Court, there are only four officially recognizedminorities in Turkey: the three non-Muslim minorities recognized in theTreaty of Lausanne (Armenians,Greeks, andJews[d]) and theBulgarians.[e][394][395][396] In 2013, the Ankara 13th Circuit Administrative Court ruled that the minority provisions of the Lausanne Treaty should also apply toAssyrians in Turkey and theSyriac language.[397][398][399] Other unrecognized ethnic groups includeAlbanians,Bosniaks,Circassians,Georgians,Laz,Pomaks, andRoma.[400][401][402]

Theofficial language isTurkish, which is the most widely spokenTurkic language in the world.[403][404] It is spoken by 85%[405][406] to 90%[407] of the population as afirst language. Kurdish speakers are the largest linguistic minority.[407] A survey estimated 13% of the population speak Kurdish or Zaza as a first language.[405] Other minority languages include Arabic,Caucasian languages, andGagauz.[407] Thelinguistic rights of the officially recognized minorities arede jure recognized and protected forArmenian,Bulgarian,Greek,Hebrew,[f][391][394][395][396] andSyriac.[398][399] There are multipleendangered languages in Turkey.

 
Largest cities or towns in Turkey
TÜİK's address-based calculation from 31 December 2023 published at 7th of February 2024.
RankNamePop.RankNamePop.
Istanbul
Istanbul
Ankara
Ankara
1Istanbul15,655,92411Mersin1,938,389İzmir
İzmir
Bursa
Bursa
2Ankara5,803,48212Diyarbakır1,818,133
3İzmir4,479,52513Hatay1,544,640
4Bursa3,214,57114Manisa1,475,716
5Antalya2,696,24915Kayseri1,445,683
6Konya2,320,24116Samsun1,377,546
7Adana2,270,29817Balıkesir1,273,519
8Şanlıurfa2,213,96418Tekirdağ1,167,059
9Gaziantep2,164,13419Aydın1,161,702
10Kocaeli2,102,90720Van1,127,612

Immigration

Main article:Immigration to Turkey

Excluding Syrians under temporary protection, there were 1,570,543 foreign citizens in Turkey in 2023.[8] Millions of Kurds fled across the mountains to Turkey and the Kurdish areas of Iran during theGulf War in 1991.Turkey's migrant crisis in the 2010s and early 2020s resulted in the influx of millions of refugees and immigrants.[408] Turkey hosts the largest number of refugees in the world as of April 2020.[409] TheDisaster and Emergency Management Presidency manages the refugee crisis in Turkey. Before the start of theSyrian civil war in 2011, the estimated number ofArabs in Turkey varied from 1 million to more than 2 million.[410]

In November 2020, there were 3.6 millionSyrian refugees in Turkey;[411] these included otherethnic groups of Syria, such asSyrian Kurds[412] andSyrian Turkmens.[413] As of August 2023, the number of these refugees was estimated to be 3.3 million. The number of Syrians had decreased by about 200,000 people since the beginning of the year.[414] The government has granted citizenship to 238 thousand Syrians by November 2023.[415] As of May 2023, approximately 96,000 Ukrainianrefugees of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine have sought refuge in Turkey.[416] In 2022, nearly 100,000 Russian citizens migrated to Turkey, becoming the first in the list of foreigners who moved to Turkey, meaning an increase of more than 218% from 2021.[417]

Religion

Main article:Religion in Turkey
Left:Çamlıca Mosque in Istanbul was designed by two female architects.[418] Right:Mor Hananyo Monastery nearMardin. From 1293 to 1932, it was the headquarters ofSyriac Orthodox Church.[419][420]

Turkey is asecular state with no officialstate religion; the constitution provides forfreedom of religion andconscience.[421][422] According to theCIA World Factbook, Muslims constitute 99.8% of the population, most of them beingSunni.[5] Based on a survey,KONDA's estimate for Muslims was 99.4% in 2006.[423] According toMinority Rights Group International, estimates of share ofAlevi are between 10% and 40% of the population.[424] KONDA's estimate was 5% in 2006.[423] 4% of adult citizens identified as Alevi in a survey in 2021, while 88% identified as Sunni.[383]

The percentage of non-Muslims in modern-day Turkey was 19.1% in 1914, but fell to 2.5% in 1927.[425] Currently, non-Muslims constitute 0.2% of the population according to the World Factbook.[5] In 2006, KONDA's estimate was 0.18% for people with non-Islam religions.[423] Some of the non-Muslim communities are Armenians,Assyrians, Bulgarian Orthodox,Catholics,Greeks, Jews, andProtestants.[426] Sources estimate that theChristian population in Turkey ranges between 180,000 and 320,000.[427][428] Turkey hasthe largest Jewish community among the Muslim-majority countries.[429] Currently, there are 439 churches and synagogues in Turkey.[430]

In 2006, KONDA's estimate was 0.47% for those with no religion.[423] According to KONDA, share of adult citizens who identified as unbeliever increased from 2% in 2011 to 6% in 2021.[383] A 2020 Gezici Araştırma poll found that 28.5% of theGeneration Zidentify as irreligious.[431][432]

Education

Main article:Education in Turkey
Istanbul Technical University is the world's third-oldesttechnical university.[433]

In the past 20 years, Turkey has improved quality of education and has made significant progress in increasing education access.[434] From 2011 to 2021, improvements in education access include "one of the largest increases in educational attainment for 25-34 year-olds at upper secondary non-tertiary or tertiary education", and quadrupling of pre-school institutions.[435]PISA results suggest improvements in education quality.[435] There is still a gap with OECD countries. Significant challenges include differences in student outcomes from different schools, differences between rural and urban areas, pre-primary education access, and arrival of students who are Syrian refugees.[435]

TheMinistry of National Education is responsible for pre-tertiary education.[436] Compulsory education is free at public schools and lasts 12 years, divided into three parts.[437][434] There are 208universities in Turkey.[364] Students are placed to universities based on theirYKS results and their preferences, by theMeasuring, Selection and Placement Center.[438] All state and private universities are under the control of theHigher Education Board (Turkish:Yükseköğretim Kurulu, YÖK). Since 2016, the president of Turkey directly appoints all rectors of all state and private universities.[439]

According to the 2024Times Higher Education ranking, the top universities wereKoç University,Middle East Technical University,Sabancı University, andIstanbul Technical University.[440] According toAcademic Ranking of World Universities, the top ones wereIstanbul University,University of Health Sciences (Turkey), andHacettepe University.[441] Turkey is a member of theErasmus+ Programme.[442] Turkey has become a hub for foreign students in recent years, with 795,962 foreign students in 2016.[443] In 2021Türkiye Scholarships, a government-funded program, received 165,000 applications from prospective students in 178 countries.[444][445][446]

Health

Main article:Health care in Turkey
Başakşehir Çam and Sakura City Hospital in Istanbul. It contains 2,068seismic base isolation units towithstand earthquakes.[447]

TheMinistry of Health has run a universal public healthcare system since 2003.[448] Known as Universal Health Insurance (Genel Sağlık Sigortası), it is funded by a tax surcharge on employers, currently at 5%.[448] Public-sector funding covers approximately 75.2% of health expenditures.[448] Despite the universal health care, total expenditure on health as a share of GDP in 2018 was the lowest among OECD countries at 6.3% of GDP, compared to the OECD average of 9.3%.[448] There are many private hospitals in the country.[449] The government planned several hospital complexes, known as city hospitals, to be constructed since 2013.[449] Turkey is one of the top 10 destinations forhealth tourism.[450]

Average life expectancy is 78.6 years (75.9 for males and 81.3 for females), compared with the EU average of 81 years.[448] Turkey has high rates ofobesity, with 29.5% of its adult population having abody mass index (BMI) value of 30 or above.[451]Air pollution is a major cause of early death.[452]

Culture

Main article:Culture of Turkey
See also:Arts in Turkey,Turkish folklore, andFestivals in Turkey

In the 19th century, Turkish identity was debated in theOttoman Empire, with three main views: Turkism, Islamism and Westernism.[453] In addition to Europe or Islam, Turkish culture was also influenced by Anatolia's native cultures.[454] After the establishment of the republic,Kemalism emphasized Turkish culture, attempted to make "Islam a matter of personal conviction", and pursued modernization.[455] Currently, Turkey has various local cultures. Things such as music,folk dance, orkebap variety may be used to identify a local area. Turkey also has a national culture, such as national sports leagues, music bands, film stars, and trends in fashion.[456] Turkey is home to21 UNESCO World Heritage sites and31 UNESCO intangible cultural heritage inscriptions.[457]

Literature, theatre, and visual arts

Main articles:Turkish literature,Theatre of Turkey, andTurkish art
Nobel-laureate Turkish novelistOrhan Pamuk and hisTurkish Angora cat at his personal writing space
Süreyya Opera House is on the Asian side ofIstanbul andAtatürk Cultural Center is the mainopera house on the European side.Zorlu PSM is the city's largestperforming arts theater andconcert hall.

Turkish literature goes back more than a thousand years. The Seljuk and Ottoman periods include numerous works of literature and poetry. Turkic tales and poetry from Central Asia were also kept alive.Tales of Dede Korkut is an example of theoral narrative tradition.Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk, from the 11th century, contains Turkish linguistic information and poetry.Yunus Emre, influenced byRumi, was one of the most important writers of Anatolian Turkish poetry. OttomanDivan poetry used "refined diction" and complex vocabulary. It includedSufi mysticism, romanticism, and formal elements.[458]

Beginning in the 19th century, Ottoman literature was influenced by the West. New genres, such as novels and journalistic style, were introduced.Aşk-ı Memnu, written byHalid Ziya Uşaklıgil, was the "first truly refined Turkish novel".Fatma Aliye Topuz, the first female Turkish novelist, wrote fiction. After the proclamation of the republic in 1923,Atatürk instituted reforms such as thelanguage reform andalphabet reform. Since then, Turkish literature reflected the socioeconomic conditions in Turkey with increasing variety. "Village Novel" genre appeared in the mid-1950s, which talked about difficulties faced from poverty.[458] An example isMemed, My Hawk byYaşar Kemal, which wasTurkey's first Nobel Prize in Literature nominee in 1973.[458][459]Orhan Pamuk won the2006 Nobel Prize in Literature.[458]

Turkey has four "major theatrical traditions": "folk theatre, popular theatre, court theater, and Western theater." Turkish folk theatre goes back thousands of years and has survived among rural communities. Popular theatre includes plays by live actors, puppet andshadow plays, andstorytelling performances. An example for shadow play isKaragöz and Hacivat. Court theatre was the refined version of popular theatre. Beginning in the 19th century, Western theatre tradition started appearing in Turkey. Following the establishment of Turkish Republic, a state conservatory and the State Theatre Company were formed.[460]

Turkey's visual arts scene can be categorized into two, as "decorative" and "fine" arts. Fine arts, orgüzel sanatlar, includes sculpture andpainting. Turkish artists in these areas have gained global recognition. Photography, fashion design, graphic arts, and graphic design are some of the other areas Turkish artists are known for in the world. The inaugural contemporary Turkish art sale bySotheby's London was in 2009.Istanbul Modern and theIstanbul Biennial are examples of art galleries or exhibitions of contemporary Turkish art. Turkey has also seen a resurgence of traditional arts. This includes Ottoman-era traditional arts, such asceramics andcarpets. Textile and carpet design, glass and ceramics,calligraphy,paper marbling (ebru) are some of the art forms for which modern-day Turkish artists are recognized as leaders in the Islamic world.[461]

Music and dance

Main articles:Turkish folk dance andMusic of Turkey
Barış Manço was a Turkish rock musician and one of the founders of theAnatolian rock genre.

Although classifying genres of Turkish music can be problematic, three broad categories can be considered. These are "Turkish folk music", "Turkish art music", and multiple popular music styles. These Popular music styles includearabesque, pop, andAnatolian rock.[462]

The resurging popularity of pop music gave rise to several international Turkish pop stars such asAjda Pekkan,Sezen Aksu,Erol Evgin,MFÖ,Tarkan,Sertab Erener,Teoman,Kenan Doğulu,Levent Yüksel andHande Yener.[citation needed] Internationally acclaimed Turkishjazz andblues musicians and composers includeAhmet Ertegun.[463]

Architecture

Main article:Architecture of Turkey
See also:Ottoman architecture
With its traditional Turkish houses,Odunpazarı district inEskişehir is atentative UNESCO World Heritage site.[464]

Turkey is home to numerousNeolithic settlements, such asÇatalhöyük.[465][56] From theBronze Age, important architectural remnants includeAlaca Höyük and the2nd layer of Troy.[56] There are various examples ofAncient Greek andAncient Roman architectures, especially in the Aegean region.[466]Byzantine architecture dates back to the 4th century AD. Its best example isHagia Sophia. Byzantine architectural style continued to develop after theconquest of Istanbul, such asByzantine Revival architecture.[467] DuringSeljuk Sultanate of Rum andTurkish principalities period, a distinct architecture emerged, which incorporated Byzantine andArmenian architectures with architectural styles found inWest Asia andCentral Asia.[468]Seljuk architecture often used stones and bricks, and produced numerouscaravanserais,madrasas andmausoleums.[469]

Ottoman architecture emerged in northwest Anatolia and Thrace.Early Ottoman architecture mixed "traditional Anatolian Islamic architecture with local building materials and techniques".[470] Following the conquest of Istanbul,classical Ottoman architecture emerged in the 16th and 17th centuries.[471] The most important architect of the classical period isMimar Sinan, whose major works include theŞehzade Mosque,Süleymaniye Mosque, andSelimiye Mosque.[471] Beginning in the 18th century, Ottoman architecture was influenced by European elements, resulting in development ofOttoman baroque style.[472] European influence continued in the 19th century; examples include works ofBalyan family such asneo-Baroque styleDolmabahçe Palace.[473] The last period of Ottoman architecture consists of theFirst National Architectural Movement, including works ofVedat Tek andMimar Kemaleddin.[472]

Since 1918, Turkish architecture can be divided into three parts. From 1918 to 1950, the first one includes the First National Architectural Movement period, which transitioned intomodernist architecture. Modernist and monumental buildings were preferred for public buildings, whereas "Turkish house" typevernacular architecture influenced private houses. From 1950 to 1980, the second part includes urbanization, modernization, and internationalization. For residential housing, "reinforced concrete, slab-block, medium-rise apartments" became prevalent. Since 1980, the third part is defined by consumer habits and international trends, such as shopping malls and office towers. Luxury residences with "Turkish house style" have been in demand.[474] In the 21st century,urban renewal projects have become a trend.[475] Resilience against natural disasters such as earthquakes is one of the main goals for urban renewal projects.[476] Around one-third of Turkey's building stock, corresponding to 6.7 million units, were assessed risky and needing urban renewal.[477]

Cuisine

Main article:Turkish cuisine
See also:Ottoman cuisine
Turkish coffee withTurkish delight. Turkish coffee is aUNESCO-listed intangible cultural heritage ofTurks.[478][479]

Turkey has a diverse and rich cuisine, varying geographically.[480] Turkish cuisine has been influenced by Anatolian,Mediterranean,Iranian,Central Asian, andEast Asian cuisines.[481] Turkish and Ottoman cuisine have also influenced others.Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk, from the 11th century, documents "the ancient lineage of much of present-day Turkish cuisine".[481]Güveç,Bulgur, andBörek are some of the earliest recorded examples of Turkish cuisine. Even thoughkebab as a word comes fromPersian, Turkic people had been familiar with using skewers to cook meat. Turkish cuisine can be distinguished by its various kinds of kebabs. Similarly,pilaf dishes were influenced by Turkish cuisine. Further information about cuisine during the Seljuk and Ottoman periods comes from the works ofRumi andEvliya Çelebi. The latter describes "food-related guilds of Istanbul".[481]

Food staples in Turkey includebread andyogurt. Some of bread varieties arelavash andpide (a type ofpita bread).Ayran is a drink made of yoghurt. In western parts of Turkey,olive oil is used. Grains include wheat, maize, barley, oats, and millet. Beans, chickpeas, nuts, aubergines, and lamb are some of the commonly used ingredients.[481]Doner kebab, originally from Turkey, is marinated lamb slices cooked vertically.[482] Seafood includesanchovy and others.Dolma varieties andmantı are made by stuffing vegetables or pasta.[481]Sarma is made by rolling edible leaf over the filling.[483]Yahni dishes are vegetable stews.[481] Turkey is one of the countries with themeze tradition.[484] Honey,pekmez, dried fruit, or fruit are used for sweetening.[481]Filo is an originally Turkishdough that is used to makebaklava.[485]Turkish delight is a "delicate but gummy jelly".[486]

Sports

Main article:Sport in Turkey
See also:Football in Turkey
Turkey atUEFA Euro 2016

The most popular sport isassociation football.[487]Galatasaray won theUEFA Cup andUEFA Super Cup in 2000.[488] TheTurkey national football team won the bronze medal at the2002 FIFA World Cup, the2003 FIFA Confederations Cup andUEFA Euro 2008.[489]

Other mainstream sports such as basketball and volleyball are also popular.[490] Themen's national basketball team andwomen's national basketball team have been successful.Anadolu Efes S.K. is the most successful Turkish basketball club in international competitions.[491][492]Fenerbahçe reached the final of theEuroLeague in three consecutive seasons (2015–2016,2016–2017 and2017–2018), becoming the European champions in 2017.

VakıfBank S.K. is one of the best women's volleyball team in the world, having won theFIVB World Championship four times and theCEV Champions Cup six times.

The final of the2013–14 EuroLeague Women basketball championship was played between two Turkish teams,Galatasaray andFenerbahçe, and won by Galatasaray.[493] Fenerbahçe won the2023 FIBA Europe SuperCup Women after two consecutive Euroleague wins in the2022–23 and2023–24 seasons.

Thewomen's national volleyball team has won several medals.[494] Women's volleyball clubs, namelyVakıfBank S.K.,Fenerbahçe andEczacıbaşı, have won numerous European championship titles and medals.[495]

The traditional national sport of Turkey has beenyağlı güreş (oilwrestling) since Ottoman times.[496] Edirne Province has hosted the annualKırkpınar oil wrestling tournament since 1361, making it the oldest continuously held sporting competition in the world.[497][498] In the 19th and early 20th centuries, oil wrestling champions such asKoca Yusuf,Nurullah Hasan andKızılcıklı Mahmut acquired international fame in Europe and North America by winning world heavyweight wrestling championship titles. International wrestling styles governed byFILA such asfreestyle wrestling andGreco-Roman wrestling are also popular, with many European, World and Olympic championship titles won by Turkish wrestlers both individually and as a national team.[499]

Media and cinema

Main article:Media in Turkey
See also:Cinema of Turkey

Hundreds of television channels, thousands of local and national radio stations, several dozen newspapers, a productive and profitablenational cinema and a rapid growth ofbroadband Internet use constitute a vibrant media industry in Turkey.[500][501] The majority of the TV audiences are shared among public broadcasterTRT and the network-style channels such asKanal D,Show TV,ATV andStar TV. Thebroadcast media have a very high penetration assatellite dishes andcable systems are widely available.[502] TheRadio and Television Supreme Council (RTÜK) is the government body overseeing the broadcast media.[502][503] By circulation, themost popular newspapers arePosta,Hürriyet,Sözcü,Sabah andHabertürk.[504]

Nuri Bilge Ceylan (left),Beren Saat (middle), andTürkan Şoray (right)

Filiz Akın,Fatma Girik,Hülya Koçyiğit, andTürkan Şoray represent their period of Turkish cinema.[505] Turkish directors likeMetin Erksan,Nuri Bilge Ceylan,Yılmaz Güney,Zeki Demirkubuz andFerzan Özpetek won numerous international awards such as thePalme d'Or andGolden Bear.[506]Turkish television dramas are increasingly becoming popular beyond Turkey's borders and are among the country's most vital exports, both in terms of profit and public relations.[507] After sweeping theMiddle East's television market over the past decade, Turkish shows have aired in more than a dozenSouth andCentral American countries in 2016.[508][509] Turkey is today the world's second largest exporter of television series.[510][511][512]

See also

Notes

  1. ^Turkish:Türkiye,Turkish:[ˈtyɾcije]
  2. ^Turkish:Türkiye Cumhuriyeti,Turkish:[ˈtyɾcijedʒumˈhuːɾijeti]
  3. ^The origin of Indo-European languages is unknown.[66]They may be native to Anatolia[67] or non-native.[68]
  4. ^Even though they are not explicitly mentioned in the Treaty of Lausanne.[391]
  5. ^TheBulgarian community in Turkey is now so small that this disposition isde facto not applied.[391][392][393]
  6. ^The Turkish government considers that, for the purpose of the Treaty of Lausanne, the language ofTurkish Jews isHebrew, even though the mother tongue of Turkish Jews was not Hebrew but historicallyJudaeo-Spanish (Ladino) or otherJewish languages.[395][396]

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    • Sams 2012, p. 617
    • Kaldellis 2024, p. 26
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    • Fábos 2005, p. 437: "Muslims had been the majority in Anatolia, the Crimea, the Balkans, and the Caucasus and a plurality in southern Russia and sections of Romania. Most of these lands were within or contiguous with the Ottoman Empire. By 1923, 'only Anatolia, eastern Thrace, and a section of the southeastern Caucasus remained to the Muslim land ... Millions of Muslims, most of them Turks, had died; millions more had fled to what is today Turkey. Between 1821 and 1922, more than five million Muslims were driven from their lands. Five and one-half million Muslims died, some of them killed in wars, others perishing as refugees from starvation and disease' (McCarthy 1995, 1). Since people in the Ottoman Empire were classified by religion, Turks, Albanians, Bosnians, and all other Muslim groups were recognized—and recognized themselves—simply as Muslims. Hence, their persecution and forced migration is of central importance to an analysis of 'Muslim migration.'"
    • Schayegh, Cyrus (2024). "A Late/Post-Imperial Region of Difference: The Ottoman Empire and its Successor Polities in Southeastern Europe, Turkey, and the Arab East, c. 1850s–1940s".Journal of World History.35 (4):579–622.doi:10.1353/jwh.2024.a943172.Between 1821 and the 1919–1922 Turko-Greek War, about five and a half million Muslims died of religious-ethnic war-related causes, including disease and hunger during forced migration, in southeastern Europe and the Crimea and Caucasus.
    • Karpat 2001, p. 343: "The main migrations started from Crimea in 1856 and were followed by those from the Caucasus and the Balkans in 1862 to 1878 and 1912 to 1916. These have continued to our day. The quantitative indicators cited in various sources show that during this period a total of about 7 million migrants from Crimea, the Caucasus, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean islands settled in Anatolia. These immigrants were overwhelmingly Muslim, except for a number of Jews who left their homes in the Balkans and Russia in order to live in the Ottoman lands. By the end of the century the immigrants and their descendants constituted some 30 to 40 percent of the total population of Anatolia, and in some western areas their percentage was even higher." ... "The immigrants called themselves Muslims rather than Turks, although most of those from Bulgaria, Macedonia, and eastern Serbia descended from the Turkish Anatolian stock who settled in the Balkans in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries."
    • Karpat 2004, pp. 5–6: "Migration was a major force in the social and cultural reconstruction of the Ottoman state in the nineteenth century. While some seven to nine million, mostly Muslim, refugees from lost territories in the Caucasus, Crimea, Balkans and Mediterranean islands migrated to Anatolia and Eastern Thrace, during the last quarter of the nineteenth and the early part of the twentieth centuries..."
    • Pekesen 2012: "The immigration had far-reaching social and political consequences for the Ottoman Empire and Turkey." ... "Between 1821 and 1922, some 5.3 million Muslims migrated to the Empire.50 It is estimated that in 1923, the year the republic of Turkey was founded, about 25 per cent of the population came from immigrant families.51"
    • Biondich 2011, p. 93: "The road from Berlin to Lausanne was littered with millions of casualties. In the period between 1878 and 1912, as many as two million Muslims emigrated voluntarily or involuntarily from the Balkans. When one adds those who were killed or expelled between 1912 and 1923, the number of Muslim casualties from the Balkan far exceeds three million. By 1923 fewer than one million remained in the Balkans"
    • Armour 2012, p. 213: "To top it all, the Empire was host to a steady stream of Muslim refugees. Russia between 1854 and 1876 expelled 1.4 million Crimean Tartars, and in the mid-1860s another 600,000 Circassians from the Caucasus. Their arrival produced further economic dislocation and expense."
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    • Findley 2005, p. 18: "Moreover, Turks do not all physically look alike. They never did. The Turks of Turkey are famous for their range of physical types. Given the Turks' ancient Inner Asian origins, it is easy to imagine that they once presented a uniform Mongoloid appearance. Such traits seem to be more characteristic in the eastern Turkic world; however, uniformity of type can never have prevailed there either. Archeological evidence indicates that Indo-Europeans, or certainly Europoid physical types, inhabited the oases of the Tarim basin and even parts of Mongolia in ancient times. In the Tarim basin, persistence of these former inhabitants' genes among the modern Uyghurs is both observable and scientifically demonstrable.32 Early Chinese sources describe the Kirghiz as blue-eyed and blond or red-haired. The genesis of Turkic ethnic groups from earliest times occurred in confederations of diverse peoples. As if to prove the point, the earliest surviving texts in Turkic languages are studded with terms from other languages."
    • Golden, Peter B. (25 July 2018)."The Ethnogonic Tales of the Türks".The Medieval History Journal.21 (2):291–327.doi:10.1177/0971945818775373.ISSN 0971-9458.S2CID 166026934.Archived from the original on 14 February 2021. Retrieved12 March 2024."Some DNA tests point to the Iranian connections of the Ashina and Ashide,133 highlighting further that the Turks as a whole 'were made up of heterogeneous and somatically dissimilar populations'.134 Geographically, the accounts cover the regions of Inner Mongolia, Gansu, Xinjiang, the Yenisei zone and the Altay, regions with Turkic, Indo-European (Iranian [Saka] and Tokharian), Yeniseic, Uralic and other populations. Wusun elements, like most steppe polities of an ethno-linguistic mix, may have also played a substratal role."
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