Swahili coast Pwani ya Waswahili (Swahili) | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Countries | Tanzania Kenya Mozambique Comoros |
| Major cities | Dar es Salaam (Mzizima) Malindi Mombasa Sofala Lamu Zanzibar |
| Ethnic groups | |
| • Bantu | Swahili |
TheSwahili coast (Swahili:Pwani ya Waswahili) is a coastal area ofEast Africa, bordered by theIndian Ocean and inhabited by theSwahili people. It includesSofala (located inMozambique);Mombasa,Gede,Pate Island,Lamu, andMalindi (inKenya); andDar es Salaam andKilwa (inTanzania).[1] In addition, several coastal islands are included in the Swahili coast, such asZanzibar andComoros.
Areas of what is today considered the Swahili coast were historically known asAzania or Zingion in theGreco-Roman era, and asZanj or Zinj in Middle Eastern, Indian and Chinese literature from the 7th to the 14th century.[2][3] The word "Swahili" means people of the coasts inArabic and is derived from the wordsawahil ("coasts").[4]
The Swahili people and their culture formed from a distinct mix of African and Arab origins.[4] The Swahili were traders and merchants and readily absorbed influences from other cultures.[5] Historical documents including thePeriplus of the Erythraean Sea and works byIbn Battuta describe the society, culture, and economy of the Swahili coast at various points in its history. The Swahili coast has a distinct culture, demography, religion, and geography, and as a result.[6]
In the pre-Swahili period, the region was occupied by smaller societies whose main socioeconomic activities were pastoralism, fishing, and mixed farming.[7] Early on, those living on the Swahili coast prospered because of agriculture helped by regular yearly rainfall andanimal husbandry.[4] The shallow coast was important as it provided seafood.[4] Starting in the early 1st millennium CE, trade was crucial.[4][8] Submerged river estuaries created natural harbors while yearly monsoons winds helped trade.[4][8] By the 10th century, ethnic Somalis had settled along the northern Swahili coast, particularly in areas adjacent to the Lamu Archipelago.[9] Later in the 1st millennium there was a migration ofBantu people.[4] The communities settling along the coast shared archaeological and linguistic features with those from the interior of the continent. Archeological data has revealed the use of Kwale and Urewe ceramics both along the coast and within the interior parts, showing that the regions had a shared way of life in the Late Stone and Early Iron Ages.[7]
From the earliest times of which there is any record[when?] the African seaboard from the Red Sea to an unknown distance southwards was subject to Arabian influence and dominion. At a later period the coast towns were founded or conquered by Persian and Arabs who, for the most part, fled toSoutheast Africa between the 8th and 11th centuries on account of the religious differences of the times, the refugees being schismatics. Various small states thus grew up along the coast. These states are sometimes referred to, collectively, as theZanj empire. However, it is unlikely that they were ever united under one ruler.[10]
According to Berger et al., this shared way of life began to diverge at least around 13th century CE (362). In the wake of trading activities along the coast, Arab merchants would pour scorn on non-Muslims and some African practices. This attitude of scorn allegedly pushed African elites to deny connections to the interior and to claim descent fromShirazis and to have already converted to Islam. The interactions that ensued led to the formation of the unique Swahili culture and city states, especially those facilitated by trade.[11]
At the zenith of its power in the 15th century, theKilwa Sultanate owned or claimed overlordship over the mainland cities ofMalindi,Inhambane and Sofala and the island-states ofMombassa,Pemba,Zanzibar,Mafia,Comoro andMozambique (plus numerous smaller places).[12]
The voyage ofVasco da Gama around theCape of Good Hope into the Indian Ocean in 1498 marked the Portuguese entry into trade, politics, and society in the Indian Ocean world. The Portuguese gained control of theIsland of Mozambique and the port city ofSofala in the early 16th century. Vasco da Gama having visitedMombasa in 1498 was then successful in reaching India thereby permitting the Portuguese to trade with theFar East directly by sea, thus challenging older trading networks of mixed land and sea routes, such as thespice trade routes that used thePersian Gulf,Red Sea andcaravans to reach the eastern Mediterranean. Initially, Portuguese rule inSoutheast Africa focused mainly on a coastal strip centred in Mombasa. With voyages led by Vasco da Gama,Francisco de Almeida andAfonso de Albuquerque, the Portuguese dominated much of southeast Africa's coast, includingSofala andKilwa, by 1515.
The Portuguese were able to wrest much of the coastal trade from Arabs between 1500 and 1700, but, with theArab seizure of Portugal's key foothold atFort Jesus onMombasa Island (now inKenya) in 1698 byOmani rulerSaif bin Sultan, the Portuguese retreated to the south.[13]
Omani rulerSaid bin Sultan (1806–1856) moved his court fromMuscat toStone Town on the island ofUnguja (that is, Zanzibar Island). He established a ruling Arab elite and encouraged the development ofcloveplantations usingthe island's slave labour. As a regional commercial power in the 19th century, Oman held the island of Zanzibar and theZanj region of theSoutheast African coast, including Mombasa andDar es Salaam.
When Said ibn Sultan died in 1856, his sons quarrelled over the succession. As a result of this struggle, the empire was divided in 1861 into two separate principalities:Sultanate of Zanzibar and the area of "Muscat and Oman".[14]
Until 1884, the Sultans of Zanzibar controlled a substantial portion of the Swahili Coast, known as Zanj. That year, however, theSociety for German Colonization forced local chiefs on the mainland to agree to German protection, prompting SultanBargash bin Said to protest. Coinciding with theBerlin Conference and theScramble for Africa, further German interest in the area was soon shown in 1885 by the arrival of the newly createdGerman East Africa Company, which had a mission to colonize the area.
In 1886, the British and Germans secretly met and discussed their aims of expansion in theAfrican Great Lakes, with spheres of influence already agreed upon the year before, with the British to take what would become theEast Africa Protectorate (nowKenya) and the Germans to take present-dayTanzania. Both powers leased coastal territory from Zanzibar and established trading stations and outposts. Over the next few years, all of the mainland possessions of Zanzibar came to be administered by European imperial powers, beginning in 1888 when theImperial British East Africa Company took over administration ofMombasa.
The same year theGerman East Africa Company acquired formal direct rule over the coastal area previously submitted to German protection. This resulted in a native uprising, theAbushiri revolt, which was suppressed by theKaiserliche Marine and heralded the end of Zanzibar's influence on the mainland.
With the signing of theHeligoland-Zanzibar Treaty between theUnited Kingdom and theGerman Empire in 1890, Zanzibar itself became aBritish protectorate. In August 1896, following the death of SultanHamad bin Thuwaini, Britain and Zanzibar fought a38-minute war, the shortest in recorded history. A struggle for succession took place as the Sultan's cousinKhalid bin Barghash seized power. The British instead wantedHamoud bin Mohammed to become Sultan, believing that he would be much easier to work with. The British gave Khalid an hour to vacate the Sultan's palace in Stone Town. Khalid failed to do so, and instead assembled an army of 2,800 men to fight the British. The British launched an attack on the palace and other locations around the city after which Khalid retreated and later went into exile. Hamoud was then peacefully installed as Sultan.[15]
In 1886, the British government encouragedWilliam Mackinnon, who already had an agreement with the Sultan and whose shipping company traded extensively in theAfrican Great Lakes, to increase British influence in the region. He formed a British East Africa Association which led to theImperial British East Africa Company being chartered in 1888 and given the original grant to administer the territory. It administered about 240 km (150 mi) of coastline stretching from theRiver Jubba via Mombasa toGerman East Africa which were leased from the Sultan. However, the company began to fail, and on 1 July 1895 the British government proclaimed aprotectorate, theEast Africa Protectorate, the administration being transferred to theForeign Office.[16]
In 1891, after it became apparent that theGerman East Africa Company could not handle its dominions, it sold out to the German government, which began to ruleGerman East Africa directly. DuringWorld War I German East Africa was gradually occupied by forces from theBritish Empire andBelgian Congo during theEast Africa Campaign, although German resistance continued until 1918. After this, theLeague of Nations formalised control of the area by the UK, who renamed it "Tanganyika". The UK held Tanganyika as a League of Nations mandate until the end ofWorld War II after which it was held as aUnited Nations trust territory.
On 23 July 1920, the inland areas of the East Africa Protectorate were annexed as British dominions by Order in Council.[17] That part of the former Protectorate was thereby constituted as theColony of Kenya and from that time, the Sultan of Zanzibar ceased to be sovereign over that territory. The remaining 16 km (10 mi) wide coastal strip (with the exception ofWitu) remained a Protectorate under an agreement with the Sultan of Zanzibar.[18] That coastal strip, remaining under the sovereignty of the Sultan of Zanzibar, was constituted as the Protectorate of Kenya in 1920.[19]
In 1961, Tanganyika gained its independence from the UK asTanganyika, joining theCommonwealth. It became a republic a year later.
The Colony of Kenya came to an end in 1963 when an ethnic Kenyan majority government was elected for the first time and eventuallydeclared independence.
On 10 December 1963, the Protectorate that had existed over Zanzibar since 1890 was terminated by the United Kingdom. The United Kingdom did not grant Zanzibar independence, as such, because the UK never had sovereignty over Zanzibar. Rather, by the Zanzibar Act 1963 of the United Kingdom,[20] the UK ended the Protectorate and made provision for full-self government in Zanzibar as an independent country within the Commonwealth. Upon the Protectorate being abolished, Zanzibar became aconstitutional monarchy within the Commonwealth under the Sultan. SultanJamshid bin Abdullah was overthrown a month later during theZanzibar Revolution. Jamshid fled into exile, and the Sultanate was replaced by thePeople's Republic of Zanzibar. In April 1964, the existence of this socialist republic was ended with its union withTanganyika to form theUnited Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar, which became known asTanzania six months later.
Trade along the Southeastern African coast started as early as the first century CE. Bantu farmers, who are considered the initial settlers within the region, built communities along the coast. These farmers eventually started trading with traders from southeast Asia, southern Arabia, and sometimes Rome and Greece.[11] The rise of the Swahili coastcity-states can be largely attributed to the region's extensive participation in a trade network that spanned theIndian Ocean.[21][22] The Indian Ocean'strade network has been likened to that of theSilk Road, with many destinations being linked through trade. It has been claimed that the Indian Ocean trade network actually connected more people than the Silk Road.[8] The Swahili coast largely exported raw products liketimber,ivory,animal skins,spices, andgold.[8] Finished products were imported from as far as east Asia such assilk andporcelain fromChina, spices andcotton fromIndia, andblack pepper fromSri Lanka.[23] Some of the other imports received from Asia and Europe include cottons, silks, woolens, glass and stone beads, metal wire, jewelry, sandalwood, cosmetics, fragrances, kohl, rice, spices, coffee, tea, other foods and flavorings, teak, iron and brass fittings, sailcloth, pottery, porcelain, silver, brass, glass,paper, paints, ink, carved wood, books, carved chests, arms, ammunition, gunpowder,swords anddaggers, gold, silver, brass, bronze, religious specialists, and craftsmen.[21] Other places that traded with the Swahili coast includeEgypt,Greece,Rome,Assyria,Sumeria,Phoenicia,Arabia,Somalia, andPersia.[24] Trade in the region decreased during thePax Mongolica due to overland trade being cheaper during that period, however, trade by ships provided the advantage that the goods that were transported on them were in bulk, meaning they could be available to the mass market.[8] Many different ethnic groups were involved in the Indian Ocean's trade network, however, especially in the western part of the Indian Ocean, Swahili coast being included, Muslim merchants dominated trade due to their ability to fund the construction of vessels.[8] The yearly monsoon winds carried ships from the Swahili coast to the eastern Indian Ocean and back. These yearly winds were the catalyst for trade in the region as they reduced the risk associated with sailing and made it predictable. The monsoon winds were less strong and reliable as one travelled further South along Africa's coast resulting in settlements being smaller and less frequent towards the South.[4] Trade was further encouraged by the invention of lateen sails which allowed merchants to travel apart from themonsoon winds.[8] Evidence for Indian Ocean trade includes the presence of pot shards on coastal archaeological sites that can be traced back to China and India.[25]
It has been estimated that between 1450 and 1900 CE as many as 17 million people were sold intoslavery fromEurope,Africa, andAsia and transported by Asian slave traders through theMediterranean Sea,Silk Road,Indian Ocean,Red Sea, andSahara desert to distant locations. As many as 5 million of these may have come from Africa, though most would have been from West Africa, rather than East Africa.[26] Before the 18th Century, the slave trade on the Southeast African coast was fairly minor. Women and children were preferred since the main roles of enslaved persons in the Asian World were as domestic servants and concubines. Most of the enslaved would have been absorbed into Swahili households. The children of enslaved concubines were born as free members of their father's lineage without distinction and manumissions were a common act of piety for elderly Muslims.[27][28]A series of slave uprisings took place between 869 and 883 CE inBasra, a city of present-dayIraq, referred to as the Zanj Rebellion. The enslaved Zanj were likely transported from the more southern areas ofSoutheast Africa.[29] The uprising grew to more than 500,000 slaves and free men as well, who were used in strenuous agriculture labor.[30] TheZanj Rebellion was a guerilla war mounted by slaves against the Abbasids. This revolt lasted 14 years. Slaves with numbers as high as 15,000 would raid towns, set slaves free, and seize weapons and food. These revolts greatly destabilized the grip that the Abbasids had over slaves. During the Rebellion, the slaves, under the leadership of Ali ibn Muhammad, captured Basra and even threatened to raid the capital, Baghdad.[11] The vast majority of the slave rebels were Black Africans, and the 9th century Zanj revolts in Iraq is some of the best evidence of a large number of people being sold into slavery from Southeastern Africa. As a result of this uprising, Abbasid Caliphate largely abandoned the large-scale importation of slaves from Southeast Africa.[31]
On the Swahili coast, coin minting can be correlated to an increase inIndian Ocean trade.[32] The earliest coins share many similarities to coins fromSindh. Some estimate that coins were minted on the Swahili coast as early as the mid 9th century until the end of the 15th century CE.[32] The making of coins came comparatively late to this area with many other cultures starting to make coins several centuries earlier. There are archaeological records of foreign coins being used in the area but few coins of foreign origin have been excavated. Previously, it was believed that the coins from the Swahili coast were of Persian origin, but now it is recognized that these are in fact indigenous coins.[32] The coins found on the coast only have inscriptions in Arabic, not Swahili. The coins from this region can be put into five categories: Shanga silver, Tanzanian silver, Kilwa copper, Kilwa gold and Zanzibar copper. Silver is not found locally on the Swahili coast, so the metal had to be imported.[32]
There are manyislands close to the Swahili coast includingZanzibar,Kilwa,Mafia andLamu in addition to distantComoros which is sometimes considered part of the Swahili coast. Several of these islands became very powerful through trade including Zanzibar and Kilwa. Before these islands became trade hubs, it is likely that the abundant local resources were very important to the islands' inhabitants. These resources include mangroves, fishing, and crustaceans.[33]Mangroves were important as they provided wood for boats. However, archaeological digs reveal that the culture of the Swahili people living on these islands was adapted to trade and their maritime surroundings quite early on.[33]
Although todayKilwa is in ruins, historically it was one of the most powerful city states on the Swahili coast.[5] One of the main exports along the Swahili coast was gold and in the 13th century the city of Kilwa took control of the gold trade fromBanadir in modern-day Somalia.[34][35] By the mid-14th century the sultan of Kilwa was able to assert his power over several other city states. Kilwa levied a customs duty on the gold that was shipped north fromZimbabwe that stopped in Kilwa's port. In Kilwa's Husuni Kabwa, or Great Fort, there is evidence of gardens, a pool, and commercial activities. The fort served as a palace and area to store commercial goods and was built by sultan Al-Hasan Ibn Suleman.[5] The fort consists of a public courtyard, and a private area. Due to the intricate architecture present in KilwaIbn Battuta, aMoroccan explorer, described the town as "one of the most beautiful towns in the world."[4] Although Kilwa had been trading for centuries, the city's wealth and control of the gold trade attracted the Portuguese who were in search of gold. During the period ofPortuguese subjugation, trade essentially stopped in Kilwa.[5]
Today, Zanzibar is a semi-autonomous region of Tanzania made up of the Zanzibar Archipelago. The archipelago is 25-50 kilometers (16-31 mi) from the mainland. Its main industries are tourism, spice production such as cloves, nutmeg, cinnamon, and black pepper, and raffia palm trees.[36] In 1698, Zanzibar became part of theOmani sultanate after sultan Saif bin Sultan defeated the Portuguese at Mombasa. In 1832 the sultan ofOman moved his capital from Muscat to Stone Town, the main city of the Zanzibar archipelago.[37] He encouraged the creation of clove plantations as well as the settlement of Indian traders. Until 1890 the sultans of Zanzibar controlled part of the Swahili coast known as Zanj which included Mombasa and Dar es Salaam. At the end of the 19th century, the British and German empires brought Zanzibar into their spheres of influence.[38]
The culture of the Swahili coast had unique characteristics emerging from the diversity of its founders. The Swahili coast was essentially an urban civilization which revolved around trade activities.[7] A few individuals in the Swahili coast were wealthy and made up the elite, ruling class. These elite families were instrumental in the fashioning of Swahili urban life by establishing a Muslim ancestry, embracing Islam, financing mosques in the region, stimulating trade, and practicing the seclusion of women. The majority of the people in the Swahili coast were less wealthy and engaged in such jobs as clerks, craftsmen, sailors, and artisans.[7] The Swahili culture is predominantly Islamic by religion. Archeological records have shown that mosques in the Swahili cities were built as early as the eight century CE. Muslim burial grounds of similar age have also been discovered.[11] Despite being predominantly Muslim, the culture was distinctly African as indicated by the Swahili language used. This language was largely African characterized by many Arab and Persian words. Irrespective of their economic status, the Swahili drew a clear difference between them and the people from interior of the continent whom they considered as uncultured. For the elite, this distinction was important in selling into slavery Africans from neighboring, non-Muslim communities.[11]Fish andshellfish are common in the Swahili coast's food due to its proximity and reliance on the coast.[39] In addition,coconuts and many differentspices as well as tropical fruits are often used. TheArabic influence can be seen in the small cups of coffee that are available in the area and the sweet meats that can be tasted. The Arab influence is also seen in the Swahili language, architecture, and boat design including food as aforementioned.[23]
Swahili is thelingua franca ofSoutheast Africa and the national language ofKenya andTanzania in addition to being one of the languages of the African Union.[4][40] Estimates of the number of speakers vary greatly but are usually around 50, 80 and 100 million people.[41] Swahili is aBantu language with heavy influence fromArabic with the word "Swahili" itself descending from the Arabic word "sahil," meaning "coast"; "Swahili" meaning "people of the coast."[4][42] Some hold that Swahili is a completely Bantu language with only a few Arabicloanwords, while others suggest that Bantu and Arabic mixed to form Swahili.[42] It has been hypothesized that the mixing of languages was facilitated by intermarriage between natives andArabs in addition to general interactions.[42] Most likely, Swahili was around in some form before Arab contact but then was heavily influenced. Swahili syntax is very similar to that of other Bantu languages as, like other Bantu languages, Swahili has five vowels (a,e,i,o,u).[42]
The primary religion of the Swahili coast isIslam.[4][43] Initially, unorthodoxMuslims fleeing persecution in their homelands may have settled in the region, but it is likely that the religion took hold through Arab traders.[4] The majority of Muslims on the Swahili coast areSunni, but many people continue non-Islamic traditions.[4] For example, spirits who bring illness and misfortune are appeased and people are buried with valuable items. In addition, teachers of Islam are allowed to become medicine men; having medicine men being a practice carried over from local tribal religions.[4][43] Men wear protectiveamulets withQuran verses.[43] The historian P. Curtis said about Islam and the Swahili coast, "The Muslim religion ultimately became one of the central elements of Swahili identity."[4]
The earliest knownMosques on the Swahili coast were built of wood and date back to the 9th century CE.[4] Swahili Mosques are typically smaller than elsewhere in theMuslim world and have little decorations.[4] In addition, they typically do not haveminarets or inner courtyards.[4] Domestic housing was usually constructed of mud-bricks and were mostly one storey high.[4] Often, they had two long and narrow rooms.[4] Housing is often decorated by carveddoor frames and window grilles. Larger houses sometimes have gardens and orchards.[4] Houses were constructed close together which resulted in twisty narrow streets.[4]
isbn:1405380187.
After Arabic, Swahili is the most widely used African language but the number of its speakers is another area in which there is little agreement. The most commonly mentioned numbers are 50, 80, and 100 million people. [...] The number of its native speakers has been placed at just under 2 million.
