| Susanoo-no-Mikoto | |
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God of the sea, storms, and fields. | |
 Susanoo slayingYamata no Orochi, woodblock print byUtagawa Kuniyoshi | |
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| Japanese | 須佐之男命, 素戔嗚尊, 素盞嗚尊, 須佐乃袁尊, 須佐能乎命 |
| Major cult center | |
| Texts | |
| Genealogy | |
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| Siblings | |
| Consort |
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| Children |
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Susanoo (スサノオ;historical orthography:スサノヲ,'Susanowo'), often referred to by the honorific titleSusanoo-no-Mikoto, is akami inJapanese mythology. The younger brother ofAmaterasu, goddess of the sun and mythical ancestress of theJapanese imperial line, he is a multifaceted deity with contradictory characteristics (both good and bad), being portrayed in various stories either as a wild, impetuous god associated with thesea andstorms, as a heroic figure who killed a monstrous serpent, or as a local deity linked with the harvest and agriculture.Syncretic beliefs of theGion cult that arose afterthe introduction ofBuddhism to Japan also saw Susanoo becoming conflated with deities of pestilence and disease.
Susanoo, alongside Amaterasu and the earthlykamiŌkuninushi (also Ōnamuchi) – depicted as either Susanoo's son or scion depending on the source – is one of the central deities of the imperial Japanese mythological cycle recorded in theKojiki (c. 712 CE) and theNihon Shoki (720 CE). One of the gazetteer reports (Fudoki) commissioned by the imperial court during the same period these texts were written, that ofIzumo Province (modernShimane Prefecture) in western Japan, also contains a number of short legends concerning Susanoo or his children, suggesting a connection between the god and this region.
In addition, a few other myths also hint at a connection between Susanoo and theKorean Peninsula.[1]
Susanoo's name is variously given in theKojiki as 'Takehaya-Susanoo-no-Mikoto' (建速須佐之男命), 'Haya-Susanoo-no-Mikoto' (速須佐之男命), or simply as 'Susanoo-no-Mikoto' (須佐之男命).-no-Mikoto is a common honorific appended to the names of Japanese gods; it may be understood as similar to the English honorific 'the Great'. He is meanwhile named in theNihon Shoki as 'Susanoo-no-Mikoto' (素戔嗚尊), 'Kamu-Susanoo-no-Mikoto' (神素戔嗚尊), 'Haya-Susanoo-no-Mikoto' (速素戔嗚尊), and 'Take-Susanoo-no-Mikoto' (武素戔嗚尊). TheFudoki ofIzumo Province renders his name both as 'Kamu-Susanoo-no-Mikoto' (神須佐能袁命) and 'Susanoo-no-Mikoto' (須佐能乎命). In these texts the following honorific prefixes are attached to his name:take- (建/武, "brave"),haya- (速, "swift"), andkamu- (神, "divine").
Thesusa in Susanoo's name has been variously explained as being derived from either of the following words:
TheKojiki (c. 712 CE) and theNihon Shoki (720 CE) both agree in their description of Susanoo as the son of the godIzanagi and the younger brother ofAmaterasu, the goddess of thesun, and ofTsukuyomi, the god of themoon. The circumstances surrounding the birth of these three deities, collectively known as the "Three Precious Children" (三貴子,Mihashira-no-Uzunomiko, Sankishi), however, vary between sources.
Before Susanoo leaves, he ascends to Takamagahara, wishing to say farewell to his sister Amaterasu. As he did so, the mountains and rivers shook and the land quaked. Amaterasu, suspicious of his motives, went out to meet him dressed in male clothing and clad in armor, but when Susanoo proposed a trial by pledge (ukehi) to prove his sincerity, she accepted. In the ritual, the two gods each chewed and spat out an object carried by the other (in some variants, an item they each possessed).
_by_Shunsai_Toshimasa_1889.jpg)
Amaterasu declares that the male deities were hers because they were born of her necklace, and that the three goddesses were Susanoo's.[20] Susanoo, announcing that he had won the trial,[a] thus signifying the purity of his intentions, "raged with victory" and proceeded to wreak havoc by destroying his sister's rice fields, defecating in her palace and flaying the 'heavenly piebald horse' (天斑駒,ame-no-fuchikoma), which he then hurled at Amaterasu's loom, killing one of her weaving maidens.[21][22][23] A furious Amaterasu in response hid inside theAma-no-Iwato ("Heavenly Rock Cave"), plunging heaven and earth into total darkness. The gods, led byOmoikane-no-Kami (思金神), eventually persuade her to come out of the cave, restoring light to the world.[24][25] As punishment for his misdeeds, Susanoo is thrown out of Takamagahara:[26][27]
At this time the eight-hundred myriad deities deliberated together, imposed upon Haya-Susanoo-no-Mikoto a fine of a thousand tables of restitutive gifts, and also, cutting off his beard and the nails of his hands and feet, had him exorcised and expelled him with a divine expulsion.[28]
After this, Sosa no wo no Mikoto said:—'All the Gods have banished me, and I am now about to depart for ever. Why should I not see my elder sister face to face; and why take it on me of my own accord to depart without more ado?' So he again ascended to Heaven, disturbing Heaven and disturbing Earth. Now Ame no Uzume, seeing this, reported it to the Sun-Goddess. The Sun-Goddess said:—'My younger brother has no good purpose in coming up. It is surely because he wishes to rob me of my kingdom. Though I am a woman, why should I shrink?' So she arrayed herself in martial garb, etc., etc.
Thereupon Sosa no wo no Mikoto swore to her, and said:—'If I have come up again cherishing evil feelings, the children which I shall now produce by chewing jewels will certainly be females, and in that case they must be sent down to the Central Land of Reed-Plains. But if my intentions are pure, then I shall produce male children, and in that case they must be made to rule the Heavens. The same oath will also hold good as to the children produced by my elder sister.'[29]
The two then perform theukehi ritual; Susanoo produces six male deities from themagatama beads on his hair knots. Declaring that his intentions were indeed pure, Susanoo gives the six gods to Amaterasu's care and departs.[30]
| Kojiki | Nihon Shoki (main text) | Nihon Shoki (variant 1) | Nihon Shoki (variant 2) | Nihon Shoki (variant 3) | Nihon Shoki (variant 4) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Goddesses (in order) | 1. Takiribime-no-Mikoto (多紀理毘売命) 2. Ichikishimahime-no-Mikoto (市寸島比売命) 3. Tagitsuhime-no-Mikoto (多岐都比売命) | 1. Tagorihime (田心姫) 2. Tagitsuhime (湍津姫) 3. Ichikishimahime (市杵嶋姫) | 1. Okitsushimahime (瀛津島姫) 2. Tagitsuhime 3. Tagorihime | 1. Ichikishimahime-no-Mikoto 2. Tagorihime-no-Mikoto 3. Tagitsuhime-no-Mikoto | 1. Okitsushimahime-no-Mikoto, a.k.a. Ichikishimahime-no-Mikoto 2. Tagitsuhime-no-Mikoto 3. Tagirihime-no-Mikoto (田霧姫命) | - |
| Born when Amaterasu | Broke Susanoo's ten-span sword into three and chewed them | Broke Susanoo's ten-span sword into three and chewed them | 1. Ate her ten-span sword 2. Ate her nine-span sword 3. Ate her eight-span sword | 1. Bit off the upper part of Susanoo'smagatama beads 2. Bit off the middle part of the beads 3. Bit off the lower part of the beads | 1. Ate her ten-span sword 2. Ate her nine-span sword 4. Ate her eight-span sword | Ate her ten-span sword |
| Gods (in order) | 1.Masakatsu-Akatsu-Kachihayahi-Ame-no-Oshihomimi-no-Mikoto (正勝吾勝勝速日天之忍穂耳命) 2.Ame-no-Hohi-no-Mikoto (天之菩卑能命) 3.Amatsuhikone-no-Mikoto (天津日子根命) 4.Ikutsuhikone-no-Mikoto (活津日子根命) 5.Kumano-no-Kusubi-no-Mikoto (熊野久須毘命) | 1. Masaka-Akatsu-Kachihayahi-Ame-no-Oshihomimi-no-Mikoto (正哉吾勝勝速日天忍穂耳尊) 2. Ame-no-Hohi-no-Mikoto (天穂日命) 3. Amatsuhikone-no-Mikoto (天津彦根命) 4. Ikutsuhikone-no-Mikoto (活津彦根命) 5. Kumano-no-Kusuhi-no-Mikoto (熊野櫲樟日命) | 1. Masaka-Akatsu-Kachihayahi-Ame-no-Oshihone-no-Mikoto (正哉吾勝勝速日天忍骨尊) 2. Amatsuhikone-no-Mikoto 3. Ikutsuhikone-no-Mikoto 4. Ame-no-Hohi-no-Mikoto 5. Kumano-no-Oshihomi-no-Mikoto (熊野忍蹈命) | 1. Ame-no-Hohi-no-Mikoto 2. Masaka-Akatsu-Kachihayahi-Ame-no-Oshihone-no-Mikoto 3. Amatsuhikone-no-Mikoto 4. Ikutsuhikone-no-Mikoto 5. Kumano-no-Kusuhi-no-Mikoto | 1. Kachihayahi-Ame-no-Oshihomimi-no-Mikoto (勝速日天忍穂耳尊) 2. Ame-no-Hohi-no-Mikoto 3. Amatsuhikone-no-Mikoto 4. Ikutsuhikone-no-Mikoto 5. Hi-no-Hayahi-no-Mikoto (熯之速日命) 6. Kumano-no-Oshihomi-no-Mikoto, a.k.a. Kumano-no-Oshikuma-no-Mikoto (熊野忍蹈命, 熊野忍隅命) | 1. Masaka-Akatsu-Kachihayahi-Ame-no-Oshihone-no-Mikoto (正哉吾勝勝速日天忍穂根尊) 2. Ame-no-Hohi-no-Mikoto 3. Amatsuhikone-no-Mikoto 4. Ikumetsuhikone-no-Mikoto (活目津彥根命) 5. Hihayahi-no-Mikoto (熯速日命) 6. Kumano-no-Ōsumi-no-Mikoto (熊野大角命) |
| Born when Susanoo | 1. Chewed the strings ofmagatama beads entwined in Amaterasu's left hair bunch 2. Chewed the beads entwined in Amaterasu's right hair bunch 3. Chewed the beads on the vine securing her hair 4. Chewed the beads wrapped around Amaterasu's left wrist 5. Chewed the beads wrapped around Amaterasu's right wrist | Chewed the strings ofmagatama beads entwined in Amaterasu's hair and wrists | Chewed his necklace ofmagatama beads | Bit off the end of Amaterasu's sword | 1. Chewed themagatama beads entwined in his left hair bunch and spat them on the palm of his left hand 2. Chewed the beads entwined in his right hair bunch and spat them on the palm of his right hand 3. Chewed the beads of his necklace and laid them on his left forearm 4. Laid the beads on his right forearm 5. Laid the beads on his left foot 6. Laid the beads on his right foot | 1. Chewed themagatama beads entwined in his right hair bunch and laid them on the palm of his left hand 2. Chewed the beads entwined in his right hair bunch and laid them on the palm of his right hand |
TheKojiki relates that during his banishment, Susanoo asked the goddess of food,Ōgetsuhime-no-Kami (大気都比売神), to give him something to eat. Upon finding out that the goddessproduced foodstuffs from her mouth, nose, and rectum, a disgusted Susanoo killed her, at which various crops, plants and seeds spring from her dead body.[26] This account is not found in theNihon Shoki, where a similar story is told of Tsukuyomi and the goddessUkemochi.[31]
After his banishment, Susanoo came down from heaven to Ashihara-no-Nakatsukuni (葦原中国, the 'Central Land of Reed Plains', i.e. the earthly land of Japan), to the land ofIzumo, where he met an elderly couple named Ashinazuchi (足名椎 / 脚摩乳) and Tenazuchi (手名椎 / 手摩乳), who told him that seven of their eight daughters had been devoured by a monstrous serpent known as theYamata no Orochi (八俣遠呂智 / 八岐大蛇, "eight-forked serpent") and it was nearing time for their eighth,Kushinadahime (櫛名田比売; also called Kushiinadahime, Inadahime, or Makami-Furu-Kushiinadahime in theShoki).
Sympathizing with their plight, Susanoo hid Kushinadahime by transforming her into acomb (kushi), which he placed in his hair. He then made the serpent drunk on strongsake and then killed it as it lay in a drunken stupor. From within the serpent's tail Susanoo discovered the sword Ame-no-Murakumo-no-Tsurugi (天叢雲剣, "Sword of the Gathering Clouds of Heaven"), also known asKusanagi-no-Tsurugi (草薙剣, "Grass-Cutting Sword"), which he then presented to Amaterasu as a reconciliatory gift.[32][33]
[Susanoo-no-Mikoto] said to Ashinazuchi and Tenazuchi-no-Kami:
"Distill thick wine of eight-fold brewings; build a fence, and make eight doors in the fence. At each door, tie together eight platforms, and on each of these platforms place a wine barrel. Fill each barrel with the thick wine of eight-fold brewings, and wait."
They made the preparations as he had instructed, and as they waited, the eight-tailed dragon came indeed, as [the old man] had said.
Putting one head into each of the barrels, he drank the wine; then, becoming drunk, he lay down and slept.
Then Haya-Susanoo-no-Mikoto unsheathed the sword ten hands long which he was wearing at his side, and hacked the dragon to pieces, so that the Hi river ran with blood.
When he cut [the dragon's] middle tail, the blade of his sword broke. Thinking this strange, he thrust deeper with the stub of his sword, until a great sharp sword appeared.
He took this sword out and, thinking it an extraordinary thing, reported [the matter] and presented [the sword] to Amaterasu-Ōmikami.This is the swordKusa-nagi.[34]
Amaterasu later bequeathed the sword toNinigi, her grandson by Ame-no-Oshihomimi, along with the mirrorYata no Kagami and the jewelYasakani no Magatama. This sacred sword, mirror, and jewel collectively became the threeImperial Regalia of Japan.
While most accounts place Susanoo's descent in the headwaters of the river Hi in Izumo (肥河 / 簸之川,Hi-no-Kawa, identified with theHii River in modernShimane Prefecture), with theKojiki specifying the area to be a place called Torikami (鳥髮, identified withMount Sentsū in eastern Shimane), one variant in theShoki instead has Susanoo descend to the upper reaches of the river E (可愛之川,E-no-kawa) in the province ofAki (identified with theGōnokawa River in modernHiroshima Prefecture). Kushinadahime's parents are here given the names Ashinazu-Tenazu (脚摩手摩) and Inada-no-Miyanushi-Susa-no-Yatsumimi (稲田宮主簀狭之八箇耳); here, Kushinadahime is not yet born when Susanoo slew the Yamata no Orochi.[35]
The ten-span sword Susanoo used to slay the Yamata no Orochi, unnamed in theKojiki and theShoki's main text, is variously named in theShoki's variants as Orochi-no-Aramasa (蛇之麁正, 'Rough [and] True [Blade] of the Serpent'),[36] Orochi-no-Karasabi-no-Tsurugi (蛇韓鋤之剣, 'Korean (Kara) Sword of the Serpent' or 'Flashing Sword of the Serpent'),[37][38] and Ame-no-Haekiri-no-Tsurugi (天蝿斫剣, 'Heavenly Fly Cutter', also Ame-no-Hahakiri 'Heavenly Serpent (haha) Cutter').[37][39] In theKogo Shūi it is dubbed Ame-no-Habakiri (天羽々斬, also Ame-no-Hahakiri).[39] This sword is said to have been originally enshrined inIsonokami Futsumitama Shrine inBizen Province (modernOkayama Prefecture) before it was transferred toIsonokami Shrine inYamato Province (modernNara Prefecture).
A variant account in theShoki relates that after Susanoo was banished due to his bad behavior, he descended from heaven, accompanied by a son named Isotakeru-no-Mikoto (五十猛命), to a place called 'Soshimori' (曽尸茂梨) in the land of Shiragi (theKorean kingdom ofSilla) before going to Izumo. Disliking the place, they crossed the sea in a boat made of clay until they arrived at Torikami Peak (鳥上之峯,Torikami no mine) by the upper waters of the river Hi in Izumo.[37]
After slaying the Yamata no Orochi, Susanoo looked for a suitable place in Izumo to live in. Upon arriving at a place called Suga (須賀 / 清), he declared, "Coming to this place, my heart is refreshed (sugasugashi)." He then erected a palace there and madea song:
Man'yogana (Kojiki): 夜久毛多都 伊豆毛夜幣賀岐 都麻碁微爾 夜幣賀岐都久流 曾能夜幣賀岐袁
Old Japanese: yakumo1 tatu / idumo1 yape1gaki1 / tumago2mi2 ni / yape1gaki1 tukuru / so2no2 yape1gaki1 wo
Modern Japanese: yakumo tatsu / izumo yaegaki / tsumagomi ni / yaegaki tsukuru / sono yaegaki o
Donald L. Philippi (1968) translates the song into English thus:
The many-fenced palace of IDUMO
Of the many clouds rising—
To dwell there with my spouse
Do I build a many-fenced palace:Ah, that many-fenced palace![40]
TheKojiki adds that Susanoo appointed Kushinadahime's father Ashinazuchi to be the headman of his new dwelling, bestowing upon him the name Inada-no-Miyanushi-Suga-no-Yatsumimi-no-Kami (稲田宮主須賀之八耳神, 'Master of the Palace of Inada, the Eight-Eared Deity of Suga'). With his new wife Kushinadahime, Susanoo had a child named Yashimajinumi-no-Kami (八島士奴美神). He then took another wife named Kamu-Ōichihime (神大市比売), the daughter ofŌyamatsumi, the god of mountains, and had two children by her:Ōtoshi-no-Kami (大年神), the god of the harvest, andUkanomitama-no-Kami (宇迦之御魂神), the god of agriculture.[41][42]
TheShoki's main narrative is roughly similar: Susanoo appoints Ashinazuchi and Tenazuchi to be the keepers of his palace and gives them the title Inada-no-Miyanushi. The child born to Susanoo and Kushiinadahime in this version is identified as Ōnamuchi-no-Kami (大己貴神, theKojiki'sŌkuninushi).[43]
After having thus lived for a time in Izumo, Susanoo at length finally found his way to Ne-no-Kuni.
One variant in theShoki has Susanoo pulling out hairs from different parts of his body and turning them into different kinds of trees. Determining the use of each, he then gives them to his three children – Isotakeru-no-Mikoto, Ōyatsuhime-no-Mikoto (大屋津姫命), and Tsumatsuhime-no-Mikoto (枛津姫命) – to spread in Japan. Susanoo then settled down in a place called Kumanari-no-Take (熊成峯) before going to Ne-no-Kuni.[44]
The myth of Susanoo's descent in Soshimori has Isotakeru bringing seeds with him from Takamagahara which he did not choose to plant in Korea but rather spread throughout Japan, beginning withTsukushi Province. The narrative adds that it is, for this reason, why Isotakeru is styled Isaoshi-no-Kami (有功之神, 'Meritorious Deity').[44]
In theKojiki, a sixth-generation descendant of Susanoo,Ōnamuji-no-Kami (大穴牟遅神), ends up in Ne-no-Kuni to escape his wicked elder brothers who make repeated attempts on his life. There he meets and falls in love with Susanoo's daughter Suseribime (須勢理毘売). Upon learning of their affair, Susanoo imposes four trials on Ōnamuji:
After Susanoo was lulled to sleep, Ōnamuji tied Susanoo's hair to the hall's rafters and blocked the door with an enormous boulder. Taking his new wife Suseribime as well as Susanoo's sword,koto, and bow and arrows with him, Ōnamuji thus fled the palace. Thekoto brushed against a tree as the two were fleeing; the sound awakens Susanoo, who, rising with a start, knocks his palace down around him. Susanoo then pursued them as far as the slopes ofYomotsu Hirasaka (黄泉比良坂, the 'Flat Slope ofYomi'). As the two departed, Susanoo grudgingly gave his blessing to Ōnamuji, advising him to change his name to Ōkuninushi-no-Kami (大国主神, "Master of the Great Land"). Using the weapons he obtained from Susanoo, Ōkuninushi defeats his brothers and becomes the undisputed ruler of Ashihara-no-Nakatsukuni.[45]
TheFudoki of Izumo Province (completed 733 CE) records the following etiological legends which feature Susanoo and his children:
Township of Susa. It is 6.3 miles west of the district office. The god Susanowo said, "Though this land is small, it is good land for me to own. I would rather have my name [associated with this land than] with rocks or trees." After saying this, he left his spirit to stay quiet at this place and established the Great Rice Field of Susa and the Small Rice Field of Susa. That is why it is called Susa. There are tax granaries in this township.[62]
Thesyncretic deityGozu Tennō (牛頭天王, "Ox-Headed Heavenly King"), originally worshiped at Yasaka Shrine in Kyoto and at other shrines such as Tsushima Shrine in Aichi Prefecture, was historically conflated with Susanoo. Originally a deity of foreign import (India and Korea have all been suggested as possible origins), Gozu Tennō was widely revered since theHeian period as a god of pestilence, who both caused disease and cured them.[66][67][68][69]
Gozu Tennō became associated with another deity called Mutō-no-Kami (武塔神) or Mutō Tenjin (武塔天神), who appears in the legend ofSomin Shōrai (蘇民将来). This legend relates that Mutō, a god from the northern sea, embarked on a long journey to court the daughter of the god of the southern seas. On his way he sought lodging from a wealthy man, but was turned down. He then went to the home of a poor man (sometimes identified as the rich man's brother) named Somin Shōrai, who gave him food and shelter. Years later, Mutō returned and slew the rich man and his family but spared Somin Shōrai's house. Some versions of the story have Mutō repaying Somin Shōrai for his hospitality by giving the poor man's daughter a wreath ofsusuki (Miscanthus sinensis) reeds that she is to wear while declaring, "[I am] the descendant of Somin Shōrai" (蘇民将来之子孫也,Somin Shōrai no shison nari). By doing so, she and her descendants would be spared from pestilence.[70][71][72][73] The deity in this story, Mutō, is often conflated with Gozu Tennō (who, as his name implies, was born with the head of an ox) in later retellings, though one version identifies Gozu Tennō as Mutō Tenjin's son.[70]
The earliest known version of this legend, found in theFudoki ofBingo Province (modern easternHiroshima Prefecture) compiled during theNara period (preserved in an extract quoted by scholar and Shinto priest Urabe Kanekata in theShaku Nihongi), has Mutō explicitly identify himself as Susanoo.[73] This suggests that Susanoo and Mutō Tenjin were already conflated in the Nara period, if not earlier. Sources that equate Gozu Tennō with Susanoo only first appear during theKamakura period (1185–1333), although one theory supposes that these three gods and various other disease-related deities were already loosely coalesced around the 9th century, probably around the year 877 when a major epidemic swept through Japan.[70]
The image of Susanoo that can be gleaned from various texts is rather complex and contradictory. In theKojiki and theShoki he is portrayed first as a petulant young man, then as an unpredictable, violent boor who causes chaos and destruction before turning into a monster-slayingculture hero after descending into the world of men, while in the IzumoFudoki, he is simply a local god apparently connected with rice fields, with almost none of the traits associated with him in the imperial mythologies being mentioned. Due to his multifaceted nature, various authors have had differing opinions regarding Susanoo's origins and original character.
TheEdo periodkokugaku scholarMotoori Norinaga, in hisKojiki-den (Commentary on the Kojiki), characterized Susanoo as an evil god in contrast to his elder siblings Amaterasu and Tsukuyomi, as the unclean air of the land of the dead still adhered to Izanagi's nose from which he was born and was not purified completely during Izanagi's ritual ablutions.[74][75] The early 20th century historianTsuda Sōkichi, who put forward the then-controversial theory that theKojiki's accounts were not based on history (as Edo periodkokugaku andState Shinto ideology believed them to be) but rather propagandistic myths concocted to explain and legitimize the rule of the imperial dynasty, also saw Susanoo as a negative figure, arguing that he was created to serve as the rebellious opposite of the imperial ancestress Amaterasu.[75] EthnologistŌbayashi Taryō, speaking from the standpoint ofcomparative mythology, opined that the stories concerning the three deities were ultimately derived from a continental (Southeast Asian) myth in which the Sun, the Moon and the Dark Star are siblings and the Dark Star plays an antagonistic role (cf.Rahu and Ketu fromHindu religion);[76][77] Ōbayashi thus also interprets Susanoo as a bad hero.[75]
Other scholars, however, take the position that Susanoo was not originally conceived of as a negative deity. MythologistMatsumura Takeo for instance believed the IzumoFudoki to more accurately reflect Susanoo's original character: a peaceful, simplekami of the rice fields. In Matsumura's view, Susanoo's character was deliberately reversed when he was grafted into the imperial mythology by the compilers of theKojiki.Matsumoto Nobuhiro, in a similar vein, interpreted Susanoo as a harvest deity.[78] While the IzumoFudoki claims that the township of Susa in Izumo is named after its deity Susanoo, it has been proposed that the opposite might have actually been the case and Susanoo was named after the place, with his name being understood in this case as meaning "Man (o) of Susa."[79]
While both Matsumura and Matsumoto preferred to connect Susanoo with rice fields and the harvest,Matsumae Takeshi put forward the theory that Susanoo was originally worshiped as a patron deity of sailors. Unlike other scholars who connect Susanoo with Izumo, Matsumae instead sawKii Province (the modern prefectures ofWakayama andMie) as the birthplace of Susanoo worship, pointing out that there was also a settlement in Kii named Susa (須佐). (In theKojiki, Ōnamuji enters Susanoo's realm, Ne-no-Kuni, through the fork of a tree in Kii.[80]) Matsumae proposed that the worship of Susanoo was brought to other places in Japan by seafaring peoples from Kii, a land rich in timber (the province's name is itself derived from the wordki meaning 'tree').[81]
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A few myths, such as that of Susanoo's descent in Soshimori in Silla, seem to suggest a connection between the god and theKorean Peninsula. Indeed, some scholars have hypothesized that the deities who were eventually conflated with Susanoo, Mutō Tenjin, and Gozu Tennō, may have had Korean origins as well, with the name 'Mutō' (武塔,historical orthography:mutau) being linked with the Korean wordmudang "shamaness," and 'Gozu' being explained as acalque of 'Soshimori', here interpreted as being derived from a Korean toponym meaning 'Bull's (so) Head (mari)'.[82] The name 'Susanoo' itself has been interpreted as being related to theMiddle Korean titlesusung (transliterated as 次次雄 or 慈充), meaning 'master' or 'shaman', notably applied toNamhae, the second king of Silla, in theSamguk Sagi.[7] Susanoo is thus supposed in this view to have originally been a foreign god (蕃神,banshin), perhaps a deified shaman, whose origins may be traced back to Korea.[83]
Emilia Gadeleva (2000) sees Susanoo's original character as being that of arain god – more precisely, a god associated withrainmaking – with his association with the harvest and a number of other elements from his myths ultimately springing from his connection with rainwater. He thus serves as a contrast and a parallel to Amaterasu, the goddess of the sun. Gadeleva also acknowledges the foreign elements in the god's character by supposing that rainmaking rituals and concepts were brought to Japan in ancient times from the continent, with the figure of the Korean shaman (susung) who magically controlled the abundance of rain eventually morphing into the Japanese Susanoo, but at the same time stresses that Susanoo is not completely a foreign import but must have had Japanese roots at his core. In Gadeleva's view, while the god certainly underwent drastic changes upon his introduction in the imperial myth cycle, Susanoo's character already bore positive and negative features since the beginning, with both elements stemming from his association with rain. As the right quantity of rainwater was vital for ensuring a rich harvest, calamities caused by too much or too little rainfall (i.e. floods, drought, or epidemics) would have been blamed on the rain god for not doing his job properly. This, according to Gadeleva, underlies the occasional portrayal of Susanoo in a negative light.[84]
In theKojiki and theNihon Shoki, Susanoo is repeatedly associated withNe-no-Kuni (Japanese: 根の国; the "Land of Roots"). While sometimes seemingly considered to be more or less identical to Yomi, the Land of the Dead (theKojiki speaks of Ne-no-Kuni as the land of Susanoo's deceased mother Izanami, who is stated earlier in the narrative to have become the ruler of Yomi, and calls the slope serving at its exit the Yomotsu Hirasaka, the 'Flat Slope of Yomi'), it would seem that the two were originally considered to be different locations.
While Matsumura Takeo suggested that Ne-no-Kuni originally referred to the dimly remembered original homeland of the Japanese people,[74] Emilia Gadeleva instead proposes that the two locales, while similar in that both were subterranean realms associated with darkness, differed from each other in that Yomi was associated with death, while Ne-no-Kuni, as implied by the myth about Ōnamuji, was seemingly associated with rebirth. Ne-no-Kuni being a land of revival, as per Gadeleva's theory, is why Susanoo was connected to it: Susanoo, as the god that brought rain and with it, the harvest, was needed in Ne-no-Kuni to secure the rebirth of crops. In time, however, the two locations were confused with each other, so that by the time theKojiki and theShoki were written Ne-no-Kuni came to be seen like Yomi as an unclean realm of the dead. Gadeleva argues that this new image of Ne-no-Kuni as a place of evil and impurity contributed to Susanoo becoming more and more associated with calamity and violence.[85]
Susanoo's acts of violence after proving his sincerity in theukehi ritual has been a source of puzzlement to many scholars. While Edo period authors such as Motoori Norinaga andHirata Atsutane believed that the order of the events had become confused and suggested altering the narrative sequence so that Susanoo's ravages would come before, and not after, his victory in theukehi,Donald Philippi criticized such solutions as "untenable from a textual standpoint."[86] (Note that as mentioned above, one of the variants in theShoki does place Susanoo's ravages and banishment before the performance of theukehi ritual.)
Tsuda Sōkichi saw a political significance in this story: he interpreted Amaterasu as an emperor-symbol, while Susanoo in his view symbolized the various rebels who (unsuccessfully) rose up against the imperial court.[87]
Emilia Gadeleva observes that Susanoo, at this point in the narrative, is portrayed similarly to the heroYamato Takeru (Ousu-no-Mikoto), in that both were rough young men possessed with "valor and ferocity" (takeku-araki kokoro); their lack of control over their fierce temperament leads them to commit violent acts. It was therefore imperative to direct their energies elsewhere: Ousu-no-Mikoto was sent by his father, theEmperor Keikō, to lead conquering expeditions, while Susanoo was expelled by the heavenly gods. This ultimately resulted in the two becoming famed as heroic figures.[88]
A prayer ornorito originally recited by the priestlyNakatomi clan in the presence of the court during the Great Exorcism (大祓,Ōharae) ritual of the last day of thesixth month, more commonly known today as theŌharae no Kotoba (大祓詞, 'Words of the Great Exorcism'),[89][90] lists eight "heavenly sins" (Japanese: 天つ罪,amatsu-tsumi), most of which are agricultural in nature:
1, 2, 6, 7 and 8 are committed by Susanoo in theKojiki, while 3, 4, 5 are attributed to him in theShoki. In ancient Japanese society, offenses related to agriculture were regarded as abhorrent as those that caused ritual impurity.[91]
One of the offensive acts Susanoo committed during his rampage was 'skinning backward' (逆剥,sakahagi) theAme-no-Fuchikoma (Japanese: 天の斑駒, "Heavenly-Piebald Horse"). Regarding this,William George Aston observed, "Indian myth has a piebald or spotted deer or cow among celestial objects. The idea is probably suggested by the appearance of the stars."[92]Nelly Naumann (1982) meanwhile interpreted the spotted horse as a lunar symbol, with Susanoo's action being equivalent to the devouring or killing of the moon. To Naumann, the act of flaying itself, because it is performed in reverse, is intended to be a magical act that caused death.[93] Indeed, in theKojiki when Susanoo throws the flayed horse (or its hide) to Amaterasu's weaving hall, one of the weaving maidens injures herself and dies. (In theShoki, it is Amaterasu herself who is alarmed and injured.) Emilia Gadeleva meanwhile connects Susanoo's act of skinning and flinging the horse with ancient Korean rainmaking rituals, which involvedanimal sacrifice.[94]
The gods punish Susanoo for his rampages by cutting off his beard, fingernails, and toenails. One textual tradition in which the relevant passage is read as "cutting off his beard and causing the nails of his hands and feetto be extracted" (亦切鬚及手足爪令拔而) suggests that this was something along the lines of corporal punishment. Another tradition which reads the passage as "cutting off his beard and the nails of his hands and feet,had him exorcised" (亦切鬚及手足爪令祓而) meanwhile suggests that this was an act of purification, in which the sins and pollution that adhered to Susanoo are removed, thus turning him from a destroyer of life into a giver of life.[95][96]
| Susanoo's family tree (based on theKojiki) |
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Susanoo's consorts are:
Susanoo's child by Kushinadahime is variously identified asYashimajinumi-no-Kami (八島士奴美神) in theKojiki and asŌnamuchi-no-Kami (大己貴神) in theNihon Shoki's main narrative. (In theKojiki and in variant accounts contained in theShoki, Ōnamuchi / Ōnamuji (Ōkuninushi) is instead Susanoo's descendant.)
Susanoo's children byKamuōichihime meanwhile are:
Susanoo's children who are either born without a female partner or whose mother is unidentified are:
Deities identified as Susanoo's children found only in the IzumoFudoki are:
AnEdo period text, theWakan Sansai Zue (和漢三才図会, lit. "Illustrated Sino-Japanese Encyclopedia"), identifies a monstrous goddess known asAma-no-Zako (天逆毎) as an offspring of Susanoo.
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In addition to his connections with the sea and tempests, due to his mythical role as the slayer of the Yamata no Orochi and his historical association with pestilence deities such as Gozu Tennō, Susanoo is also venerated as a god who wards off misfortune and calamity, being invoked especially against illness and disease.[104] As his heroic act helped him win the hand of Kushinadahime, he is also considered to be a patron of love and marriage, such as in Hikawa Shrine inSaitama Prefecture (see below).[105][106]
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Susanoo is worshiped in a number of shrines throughout Japan, especially inShimane Prefecture (the eastern part of which is the historical Izumo Province). A few notable examples are:
The following shrines were originally associated with Gozu Tennō:
The Hikawa Shrine network concentrated in Saitama andTokyo (historicalMusashi Province) also has Susanoo as its focus of worship, often alongside Kushinadahime.
In the 20th century, Susanoo was depicted as the common ancestor of the modernKoreans while theJapanese were considered to be descendants ofAmaterasu during theJapanese occupation of Korea by historians such asShiratori Kurakichi, founder of the discipline of Oriental History (Tōyōshi 東洋史) inTokyo Imperial University.[122]
The theory linked the Koreans to Susanoo and in turn the Japanese which ultimately legitimized the colonization of theKorean peninsula by the Japanese.
Yamata Amasung Keibu Keioiba (English:Yamata-no-Orochi and Keibu Keioiba) is aMeitei language play that interweaves the stories of the two legendary creatures,Yamata-no-Orochi slain by Susanoo ofJapanese folklore andKeibu Keioiba ofMeitei folklore (Manipuri folklore). In the play, the role of Susanoo was played byRomario Thoudam Paona.[123][124]
Along with Yamato Takeru, he was portrayed byToshiro Mifune inThe Birth of Japan. The film suggests Susanoo's grief over Izanami and resentment towards Izanagi caused his violent rampage.
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