Recreational drug use is the use of one or morepsychoactive drugs to induce analtered state of consciousness, either for pleasure or for some other casual purpose or pastime.[1] When a psychoactive drug enters the user's body, it induces anintoxicating effect.[1] Recreational drugs are commonly divided into three categories:depressants (drugs that induce a feeling of relaxation and calmness),stimulants (drugs that induce a sense of energy and alertness), andhallucinogens (drugs that induce perceptual distortions such ashallucination).[2]
Many researchers have explored theetiology of recreational drug use.[1] Some of the most common theories are:genetics,[12] personality type, psychological problems, self-medication, sex, age, depression, curiosity, boredom, rebelliousness, a sense of belonging to a group, family and attachment issues, history of trauma, failure at school or work, socioeconomic stressors, peer pressure, juvenile delinquency, availability, historical factors, or socio-cultural influences.[13][14] There has been no consensus on a single cause.[13] Instead, experts tend to apply thebiopsychosocial model.[13] Any number of factors may influence an individual's drug use, as they are notmutually exclusive.[13][14][15] Regardless of genetics, mental health, or traumatic experiences, social factors play a large role in the exposure to and availability of certain types of drugs and patterns of use.[13][14][16]
According to addiction researcher Martin A. Plant, some people go through a period of self-redefinition before initiating recreational drug use.[14] They tend to view using drugs as part of a general lifestyle that involves belonging to a subculture that they associate with heightened status and the challenging of social norms.[14] Plant states: "From the user's point of view there are many positive reasons to become part of the milieu of drug taking. The reasons for drug use appear to have as much to do with needs for friendship, pleasure and status as they do with unhappiness or poverty. Becoming a drug taker, to many people, is a positive affirmation rather than a negative experience".[14]
Anthropological research has suggested that humans "may have evolved to counter-exploit plantneurotoxins". The ability to use botanical chemicals to serve the function ofendogenousneurotransmitters may have improved survival rates, conferring an evolutionary advantage. A typically restrictive prehistoric diet may have emphasized the apparent benefit of consumingpsychoactive drugs, which had themselves evolved to imitate neurotransmitters.[17] Chemical–ecological adaptations and the genetics ofhepaticenzymes, particularlycytochrome P450, have led researchers to propose that "humans have shared a co-evolutionary relationship withpsychotropic plant substances that is millions of years old."[18]
Some scientific studies in the early 21st century found that a low to moderate level of alcohol consumption, particularly ofred wine,[27] might have substantial health benefits such as decreased risk ofcardiovascular diseases,stroke, andcognitive decline.[28][29][30] This claim has been disputed, specifically by British researcherDavid Nutt, professor of neuropsychopharmacology at theImperial College London, who stated that studies showing benefits for "moderate" alcohol consumption in "some middle-aged men" lacked controls for the variable of what the subjects were drinking beforehand.[31] Experts in theUnited Kingdom have suggested that some psychoactive drugs that may be causing less harm to fewer users (although they are also used less frequently in the first place) are cannabis,psilocybin mushrooms,LSD, andMDMA; however, these drugs have risks and side effects of their own.[32]
Chart of drug dependence potential and relationship between use and lethal dose[33]Chart of relative harmfulness of some psychoactive substances[32]
Drug harmfulness is defined as the degree to which apsychoactive drug has the potential to cause harm to the user and is measured in several ways, such as byaddictiveness and the potential for physical harm. More objectively harmful drugs may be colloquially referred to as "hard drugs",[34] and less harmful drugs as "soft drugs".[35] The term "soft drug" is considered controversial by critics as it may imply the false belief that soft drugs cause lesser or insignificant harm.[35]
Responsible drug use advocates that users should not take drugs at the same time as activities such as driving, swimming, operating machinery, or other activities that are unsafe without a sober state. Responsible drug use is emphasized as a primary prevention technique in harm-reduction drug policies. Harm-reduction policies were popularized in the late 1980s, although they began in the 1970s counter-culture, through cartoons explaining responsible drug use and the consequences of irresponsible drug use to users.[36] Another issue is that the illegality of drugs causes social and economic consequences for users—the drugs may be "cut" with adulterants and the purity varies wildly, making overdoses more likely—and legalization of drug production and distribution could reduce these and other dangers of illegal drug use.[37]
One in four adolescents has used an illegal drug, and one in ten of those adolescents who need addiction treatment get some type of care.[39] School-based programs are the most commonly used method for drug use education; however, the success rates of these intervention programs are highly dependent on the commitment of participants and are limited in general.[40]
Alcohol is the most widely used recreational drug inAustralia.[43] 86.2% of Australians aged 12 years and over have consumed alcohol at least once in their lifetime, compared to 34.8% of Australians aged 12 years and over who have used cannabis at least once in their lifetime.[43]
From the mid-19th century to the 1930s, American physicians prescribedCannabis sativa as aprescription drug for various medical conditions.[44] In the 1960s, thecounterculture movement introduced the use of psychoactive drugs, including cannabis. Young adults and college students reported the recreational prevalence of cannabis, among other drugs, at 20-25% while the cultural mindset of using was open and curious.[45] In 1969, the FBI reported that between the years 1966 and 1968, the number of arrests for marijuana possession, which had been outlawed throughout the United States underMarijuana Tax Act of 1937, had increased by 98%.[46] Despite acknowledgement that drug use was greatly growing among America's youth during the late 1960s, surveys have suggested that only as much as 4% of the American population had ever smoked marijuana by 1969. By 1972, however, that number would increase to 12%. That number would then double by 1977.[47]
The Controlled Substances Act of 1970 classified marijuana along withheroin andLSD as aSchedule I drug, i.e., having the relatively highest abuse potential and no accepted medical use.[44][48] Most marijuana at that time came from Mexico, but in 1975 the Mexican government agreed to eradicate the crop by spraying it with the herbicide paraquat, raising fears of toxic side effects. Colombia then became the main supplier.[48] The"zero tolerance" climate of the Reagan and Bush administrations (1981–1993) resulted in passage of strict laws andmandatory sentences for possession of marijuana.[49] The "War on Drugs" thus brought with it a shift from reliance on imported supplies to domestic cultivation, particularly inHawaii andCalifornia. Beginning in 1982, the Drug Enforcement Administration turned increased attention to marijuana farms in the United States, and there was a shift to the indoor growing of plants specially developed for small size and high yield. After over a decade of decreasing use, marijuana smoking began an upward trend once more in the early 1990s, especially among teenagers, but by the end of the decade this upswing had leveled off well below former peaks of use.[48]
The prevalence of recreational drugs in human societies is widely reflected in fiction, entertainment, and the arts, subject to prevailing laws and social conventions. For instance, in themusic industry, the musical genreship hop,hardcore rap, andtrap, alongside theirderivative subgenres andsubcultures, are most notorious for having continuously celebrated and promoteddrug trafficking,gangster lifestyle, and consumption of alcohol and other drugs since their inception in the United States during the late 1980s–early 1990s.[62][63][64][65] Invideo games, for example, drugs are portrayed in a variety of ways: including power-ups (cocaine gum replenishes stamina inRed Dead Redemption 2), obstacles to be avoided (such as the Fuzzies inSuper Mario World 2: Yoshi's Island that distort the player's view when accidentally consumed), items to be bought and sold for in-game currency (coke dealing is a big part ofScarface: The World Is Yours). In theFallout video game franchise, drugs ("chems" in the game) can fill the role of any above mentioned.[66]Drug trafficking,gang rivalries, and their related criminal underworld also play a big part in theGrand Theft Auto video game franchise.[66]
Amphetamines: Used recreationally to provide alertness and a sense of energy. Prescribed forADHD, narcolepsy, depression, and weight loss. A potentcentral nervous systemstimulant, in the 1940s and 50smethamphetamine was used by Axis and Allied troops inWorld War II, and, later on, other armies, and by Japanese factory workers. It increases muscle strength and fatigue resistance and improves reaction time.[70] Methamphetamine use can beneurotoxic, which means it damagesdopamine neurons.[71] As a result of this brain damage, chronic use can lead topost acute withdrawal syndrome.[72]
Cocaine: It is available as a white powder, which is insufflated ("sniffed" into the nostrils) or converted into a solution with water andinjected.[5] A popular derivative,crack cocaine is typically smoked. When transformed into its freebase form,crack, the cocaine vapour may be inhaled directly. This is thought to increasebioavailability, but has also been found to be toxic, due to the production ofmethylecgonidine duringpyrolysis.[74][75][76]
MDMA: Commonly known as ecstasy, it is a commonclub drug in therave scene.
Ketamine: An anesthetic used legally by paramedics and doctors in emergency situations for itsdissociative andanalgesic qualities and illegally in theclub drug scene.
Lean: A liquid drug mixture made when mixing cough syrup, sweets,soft drinks andcodeine. It originated in the 1990s inHouston. Ever since then, this drug usage has grown and is often used at parties and in the trap music scene. Many people would get a drowsy feeling when consuming this drug.
LSD: A popularergoline derivative, that was firstsynthesized in 1938 byAlbert Hofmann. However, he failed to notice its psychedelic effects until 1943.[77] It's aserotonergicpsychedelic (partial agonist atserotonin receptors, particularly the5-HT2A subtypes) likepsilocin,mescaline andDMT. But LSD is unique because it is also a partial agonist ofdopamine andnorepinephrine receptors, particularly theD2R subtypes. LSD (d-Lysergic Acid Diethylamide) is a molecule of thelysergamide family, a subclass of thetryptamine family. In the 1950s, it was used in psychological therapy, and, covertly, by theCIA in ProjectMKULTRA, in which the drug was administered to unwitting US and Canadian citizens. It played a central role in 1960s 'counter-culture', and was banned in October 1968 by US PresidentLyndon B Johnson.[78][79]
Nitrous oxide: legally used by dentists as an anxiolytic and anaesthetic, it is also used recreationally by users who obtain it from whipped cream canisters (whippets or whip-its) (seeinhalant), as it causes perceptual effects, a "high" and at higher doses, hallucinations.
Opiates andopioids: Available by prescription for pain relief. Commonly used opioids includeoxycodone,hydrocodone,codeine,fentanyl,heroin,methadone, andmorphine. Opioids have a high potential foraddiction and have the ability to induce severe physicalwithdrawal symptoms upon cessation of frequent use. Heroin can be smoked, insufflated, or turned into a solution with water and injected.[5]Percocet is a prescription opioid containing oxycodone andacetaminophen.
Psilocybin mushrooms: This hallucinogenic drug was an important drug in thepsychedelic scene. Until 1963, when it was chemically analysed byAlbert Hofmann, it was completely unknown to modern science thatPsilocybe semilanceata ("Liberty Cap", common throughout Europe) containspsilocybin, a hallucinogen previously identified only in species native to Mexico, Asia, and North America.[80]
Salvia divinorum: This hallucinogenicMexican herb in themint family; not considered recreational, most likely due to the nature of the hallucinations (legal in some jurisdictions)
Drugs are often associated with a particularroute of administration. Many drugs can be consumed in more than one way. For example,marijuana can be swallowed like food or smoked, andcocaine can be "sniffed" in the nostrils, injected, or, with various modifications, smoked.
inhalation: all intoxicative inhalants (see below) that are gases or solvent vapours that are inhaled through the trachea, as the name suggests
intravenous injection (see also the articleDrug injection): the user injects a solution of water and the drug into a vein, or less commonly, into the tissue.[5] Drugs that are injected includemorphine andheroin,[5] less commonly other opioids. Stimulants likecocaine ormethamphetamine may also be injected.[5] In rare cases, users inject other drugs.
oral intake: caffeine, ethanol, cannabis edibles, psilocybin mushrooms,coca tea,poppy tea,laudanum,GHB, ecstasy pills withMDMA or various other substances (mainly stimulants and psychedelics), prescription and over-the-counter drugs (ADHD and narcolepsy medications, benzodiazepines, anxiolytics, sedatives, cough suppressants, morphine, codeine, opioids and others)
sublingual: substances diffuse into theblood throughtissues under the tongue. Many psychoactive drugs can be or have been specifically designed for sublingual administration, includingbarbiturates, benzodiazepines,[87]opioidanalgesics with poor gastrointestinal bioavailability,LSD blotters,coca leaves, some hallucinogens. This route of administration is activated when chewing some forms ofsmokeless tobacco (e.g.dipping tobacco,snus).
intrarectal: administering into the rectum, most water-soluble drugs can be used this way.
Many drugs are taken through various routes. Intravenous route is the most efficient, but also one of the most dangerous. Nasal, rectal, inhalation and smoking are safer. The oral route is one of the safest and most comfortable, but of littlebioavailability.
Depressants are psychoactive drugs that temporarily diminish the function or activity of a specific part of the body or mind.[92] Colloquially, depressants are known as "downers", and users generally take them to feel more relaxed and less tense. Examples of these kinds of effects may include anxiolysis, sedation, and hypotension. Depressants are widely used throughout the world asprescription medicines and asillicit substances. When these are used, effects may includeanxiolysis (reduction of anxiety),analgesia (pain relief),sedation,somnolence, cognitive/memory impairment,dissociation, muscle relaxation, loweredblood pressure/heart rate,respiratory depression,anesthesia, andanticonvulsant effects. Depressants exert their effects through a number of different pharmacological mechanisms, the most prominent of which include potentiation ofGABA oropioid activity, and inhibition ofadrenergic,histamine oracetylcholine activity. Some are also capable of inducing feelings ofeuphoria. The most widely used depressant by far isalcohol (i.e.ethanol).
Stimulants or "uppers", such asamphetamines orcocaine, which increase mental or physical function, have an opposite effect to depressants.
Depressants, in particular alcohol, can precipitatepsychosis. A 2019 systematic review and meta-analysis by Murrie et al. found that the rate of transition from opioid, alcohol andsedative induced psychosis to schizophrenia was 12%, 10% and 9% respectively.[93]
Antihistamines (or "histamine antagonists") inhibit the release or action ofhistamine. "Antihistamine" can be used to describe any histamine antagonist, but the term is usually reserved for theclassical antihistamines that act upon theH1 histamine receptor. Antihistamines are used as treatment forallergies. Allergies are caused by an excessive response of the body toallergens, such as thepollen released by grasses and trees. An allergic reaction causes release of histamine by the body. Other uses of antihistamines are to help with normal symptoms of insect stings even if there is no allergic reaction. Their recreational appeal exists mainly due to theiranticholinergic properties, that induceanxiolysis and, in some cases such asdiphenhydramine,chlorpheniramine, andorphenadrine, a characteristic euphoria at moderate doses.[citation needed] High dosages taken to induce recreational drug effects may lead to overdoses. Antihistamines are also consumed in combination with alcohol, particularly by youth who find it hard to obtain alcohol. The combination of the two drugs can cause intoxication with lower alcohol doses.
Hallucinations and possibly delirium resembling the effects ofDatura stramonium can result if the drug is taken in much higher than therapeutic doses. Antihistamines are widely available over the counter at drug stores (without a prescription), in the form of allergy medication and somecough medicines. They are sometimes used in combination with other substances such as alcohol.The most common unsupervised use of antihistamines in terms of volume and percentage of the total is perhaps in parallel to the medicinal use of some antihistamines to extend and intensify the effects of opioids and depressants. The most commonly used arehydroxyzine, mainly to extend a supply of other drugs, as in medical use, and the above-mentioned ethanolamine and alkylamine-class first-generation antihistamines, which are – once again as in the 1950s – the subject of medical research into their anti-depressant properties.
For all of the above reasons, the use of medicinal scopolamine for recreational uses is also observed.
Analgesics (also known as "painkillers") are used to relievepain (achieveanalgesia). The wordanalgesic derives from Greek "αν-" (an-, "without") and "άλγος" (álgos, "pain"). Analgesic drugs act in various ways on theperipheral andcentral nervous systems; they includeparacetamol (also known in the US as acetaminophen), thenonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as thesalicylates (e.g.aspirin), andopioid drugs such ashydrocodone,codeine,heroin andoxycodone. Some further examples of thebrand nameprescriptionopiates andopioid analgesics that may be used recreationally include Vicodin, Lortab, Norco (hydrocodone), Avinza, Kapanol (morphine), Opana, Paramorphan (oxymorphone), Dilaudid, Palladone (hydromorphone), and OxyContin (oxycodone).
Stimulants, also known as "psychostimulants",[94] induceeuphoria with improvements in mental and physical function, such as enhanced alertness, wakefulness, and locomotion. Stimulants are also occasionally called "uppers".Depressants or "downers", which decrease mental or physical function, are in stark contrast to stimulants and are considered to be their functional opposites.
Use of stimulants may cause the body to significantly reduce its production of endogenous compounds that fulfill similar functions. Once the effect of the ingested stimulant has worn off the user may feel depressed, lethargic, confused, and dysphoric. This is colloquially termed a "crash" and may promote reuse of the stimulant.
Amphetamines are a significant cause of drug-induced psychosis. Importantly, a 2019 meta-analysis found that 22% of people with amphetamine-induced psychosis transition to a later diagnosis of schizophrenia.[93]
Alcohol: "Euphoria, the feeling of well-being, has been reported during the early (10–15 min) phase of alcohol consumption" (e.g., beer, wine or spirits)[95]
Cannabis:Tetrahydrocannabinol, the main psychoactive ingredient in this plant, can have sedative and euphoric properties.
Catnip: Catnip contains a sedative known asnepetalactone that activates opioid receptors. In cats it elicits sniffing, licking, chewing, head shaking, rolling, and rubbing which are indicators of pleasure. In humans, however, catnip does not act as a euphoriant.[96]
Stimulants: "Psychomotor stimulants produce locomotor activity (the subject becomes hyperactive), euphoria, (often expressed by excessive talking and garrulous behaviour), and anorexia. The amphetamines are the best known drugs in this category..."[97]
MDMA: The "euphoriant drugs such asMDMA ('ecstasy') and MDEA ('eve')" are popular among young adults.[98] MDMA "users experience short-term feelings of euphoria, rushes of energy and increased tactility"[99] as well as interpersonal connectedness.
Opium: This "drug derived from the unripe seed-pods of the opium poppy…produces drowsiness and euphoria and reduces pain. Morphine and codeine are opium derivatives."[100] Opioids have led to many deaths in the United States, particularly by causing respiratory depression.
Hallucinogens can be divided into three broad categories:psychedelics,dissociatives, anddeliriants. They can cause subjective changes inperception,thought,emotion andconsciousness. Unlike other psychoactive drugs such asstimulants andopioids, hallucinogens do not merely amplify familiar states of mind but also induce experiences that differ from those of ordinary consciousness, often compared to non-ordinary forms of consciousness such astrance,meditation, conversion experiences, anddreams.
Hallucinogen-induced psychosis occurs when psychosis persists despite no longer being intoxicated with the drug. It is estimated that 26% of people with hallucinogen-induced psychosis will transition to a diagnosis of schizophrenia. This percentage is less than the psychosis transition rate for cannabis (34%) but higher than that of amphetamines (22%).[93]
Starting in the mid-20th century, psychedelic drugs have been the object of extensive attention in the Western world. They have been and are being explored as potential therapeutic agents in treatingdepression,post-traumatic stress disorder,obsessive–compulsive disorder,alcoholism, andopioid addiction. Yet the most popular, and at the same time most stigmatized, use of psychedelics in Western culture has been associated with the search for directreligious experience, enhancedcreativity, personal development, and "mind expansion". The use of psychedelic drugs was a major element of the 1960scounterculture, where it became associated with various social movements and a general atmosphere of rebellion and strife between generations.
Inhalants aregases,aerosols, or solvents that are breathed in and absorbed through the lungs. While some "inhalant" drugs are used formedical purposes, as in the case ofnitrous oxide, a dental anesthetic, inhalants are used as recreational drugs for their intoxicating effect.[101] Most inhalant drugs that are used non-medically are ingredients in household or industrial chemical products that are not intended to be concentrated and inhaled, including organicsolvents (found in cleaning products, fast-drying glues, andnail polish removers), fuels (gasoline (petrol) andkerosene), and propellant gases such asFreon and compressedhydrofluorocarbons that are used in aerosol cans such as hairspray, whipped cream, and non-stick cooking spray. A small number of recreational inhalant drugs are pharmaceutical products that are used illicitly, such as anesthetics (ether and nitrous oxide)[101] and volatile anti-angina drugs (alkyl nitrites, more commonly known as "poppers").
The most serious inhalant abuse occurs among children and teens who "[...] live on the streets completely without family ties".[102] Inhalant users inhalevapor or aerosol propellant gases using plastic bags held over the mouth or by breathing from a solvent-soaked rag or an open container. The effects of inhalants range from an alcohol-like intoxication and intense euphoria to vividhallucinations, depending on the substance and the dosage. Some inhalant users are injured due to the harmful effects of the solvents or gases, or due to other chemicals used in the products inhaled. As with any recreational drug, users can be injured due to dangerous behavior while they are intoxicated, such as driving under the influence. Computer cleaning dusters are dangerous to inhale, because the gases expand and cool rapidly upon being sprayed. In many cases, users have died fromhypoxia (lack of oxygen), pneumonia, cardiac failure or arrest,[103] or aspiration of vomit.
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