Slavery in Somalia existed as a part of theEast African slave trade andArab slave trade. To meet the demand for menial labor,Bantus fromsoutheastern Africa slaves were exported fromZanzibar and were sold in cumulatively large numbers over the centuries to customers inEast Africa and other areas inNortheast Africa andAsia by the Somalis.[1] Ethiopians, especiallyAmharas andTigrayans were also captured and sold to traders fromArabia,India,Greece, and beyond.[2][3]
Oromo subjects were favoured due to their features compared to other slaves.[4] Additionally, they were not viewed as very different from their Somali owners, thus being higher in price compared to other East Africans.[5]
Habesha slaves were sold by Somalis as early the 13th century. Archival records compiled at the end ofRasulid Sultan Al-Muzaffar Yusuf’s rule in the 1290s mentions that the main slaves brought to Yemen were ofAmhara andTigrayan ethnic backgrounds and were shipped from the port city ofZeila. A eunuch of Amhara origin would cost fourdinars while aconcubine would cost twodinars.[2] TheAdalite SultanJamal ad-Din sold numerousAmharas into slavery in places as far away as Greece and India. By the end of each of his battles he would distribute threeAmhara slaves to the poorest Muslims and sell the rest of them for a cheap sum due to their overwhelming number.[3]
According toFrancisco Álvares,ImamMahfuz attacked the Christian Abyssinians when they were physically weak duringLent and was able to carry off no less than 19,000 Abyssinians to which he immediately sold off to his friends inArabia.[6]: 58 Ludovico di Varthema, who visitedZeila in 1503 wrote that the port was a place of immense traffic, especially for slaves. He declares:
Here are sold a very great number of slaves, which are the people of Prester John (Ethiopia) whom the Moors take in battle, and from this place they are carried into Persia, Arabia Felix, and to Mecca, Cairo and into India.
Zeila seems to have been the southernmost port frequented by Arab merchants, whose chief center for these regions, however, wasAden, where the commercial, and also the climatic conditions were more favorable. Through Zeila, and to a lesser degreeBerbera, passed the main stream of slaves from the Ethiopian hinterland.[7]
The conquests ofAhmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi resulted in large numbers ofHabesha peoples enslaved. He is said to have captured "hordes of Christians" which resulted in every soldier of his army having no less than two hundred slaves each, and according to a local chronicle every man inHarar had at least three Habesha slaves. Many of the Christian nobility were sold into slavery and their wives turned into concubines for the Muslims.[7][6]: 63
According toRichard Pankhurst, almost all of the Ethiopians captured by Imam Ahmad were subsequently sold to foreign merchants in exchange for firearms and cannons. A Portuguese Jesuit reported that Adal managed to sell "thousands" of Abyssinian slaves to traders from across the sea, toArabs,Turks, toPersians and toIndians.[6]: 59 This trade of Christian Ethiopian slaves persisted well into the nineteenth century, as they were preferred in Muslim markets over their neighboring "pagan" counterparts.[8]
2500 years ago, speakers of the original proto-Bantu language group began a millennia-long series of migrations eastward from their original homeland in the generalCameroon area ofCentral Africa.[9] ThisBantu expansion first introducedBantu peoples tosouthern andsoutheastern Africa.[10][11]
To satisfy the demands of the market foragricultural produce in theArabian Peninsula and cater to the local needs,Somali clans in theLower Shabelle region and along the ancientBanadir coast began the procurement ofBantuslaves fromArab slave traders to provide labor and serve as client farmers for theSomali clans.[12]
"The farming was performed by local client-farmers, boon, or low status groups of the dominantBiimaal,Geledle,Hintirre,Murosade, Mobileyn and other predominantly pastoral clans which had established control of small portions of the valley. They produced mainly to serve local markets. Ample, fertile land remained uncultivated, due to a chronic shortage of farm labor. In order to respond to market demands for grain in South Arabia, the local Somali clans of the Lower Shabelle began purchasing slaves from Arab and Swahili slave ships. These slaves came first from Zanzibar (the Zegua or Mushunguli people)."
TheBantus residing inSomalia are the descendants ofBantu individuals who were taken captive and transported toSomalia byArab slave merchants during the 18th and 19th centuries to work as agricultural laborers.[13][14] The Somali Bantus belong to several ethnic groups, namely Majindo, Mnyasa,Mkuwa, Mzihuwa,Mushunguli, and Molima, each consisting of numerous subclans. Their ancestral roots can be traced back to various historical andmodern African nations, including many inCentral Africa, those of theCongo region (such as the then-Kingdom of Kongo, modernAngola,DR Congo andRotC),Mozambique,Malawi, andTanzania.[15]
Bantus are ethnically, physically, and culturally distinct fromSomalis andEthiopians and they have remained marginalized ever since their arrival to the Horn of Africa.[16][17]
All in all, the number of Bantu inhabitants in Somalia before thecivil war is thought to have been about 80,000 (1970 estimate), with most concentrated between the Juba and Shabelle rivers in the south.[18] Recent estimates place the figure as high as 900,000 people, however, lower estimates place the figure between 500,000 and 600,000.[19][15]
TheIndian Ocean slave trade was multi-directional and changed over time. To meet the demand for menial labor, Bantu slaves were captured from southeastern Africa and sold in cumulatively large quantities over the centuries to customers inEgypt,Arabia,Somalia,Persia,India,the Far East,and the Indian Ocean islands.[20][1]
From 1800 to 1890, between 25,000 and 50,000 Bantu slaves are thought to have been sold from the slave markets ofZanzibar alone to the Somali coast by Somali slave traders.[16]: 8 Most of the slaves were from theMakua,Nyasa,Yao,Zaramo andZigua ethnic groups ofTanzania,Mozambique andMalawi. Collectively, these Bantu groups are known asMushunguli, which is a term taken fromMzigula, the Zigua tribe's word for "people" (the word holds multiple implied meanings including "worker", "foreigner", and "servant").[20]
Bantu adult and children slaves (referred to asjareer by their Somali handlers)[21] were purchased in the slave markets explicitly to do undesirable work on plantations with oversight.[21] They were made to work inplantations exclusively owned by the Italian government along the southernShebelle andJubba rivers, harvesting lucrative cash crops such as grain and cotton.[22] Bantu slaves toiled under the control of the Italian government.[21]
The Bantus were conscripted to forced labor on Italian-owned plantations since the Somalis themselves were averse to what they deemed menial labor,[23]: 64 and because theItalians viewed theSomalis as racially superior to the Bantu. Catherine Lowe Besteman notes:[24]
While upholding the perception of Somalis as distinct from and superior to the European construct of "black Africans", both British and Italian colonial administrators placed the Jubba valley population in the latter category. Colonial discourse described the Jubba valley as occupied by a distinct group of inferior races, collectively identified as the WaGosha by the British and the WaGoscia by the Italians. Colonial authorities administratively distinguished the Gosha as an inferior social category, delineating a separate Gosha political district called Goshaland, and proposing a "native reserve" for the Gosha.
— Besteman (1999) p. 120
The Italian colonial administration abolished slavery in Somalia at the turn of the 20th century. However, some Somali clans notably the Biimaal clan opposed this idea. The Biimaals fought the Italians to keep their slaves.
In the late 19th century, groups from the coastal regions ofKenya were also sold into slavery. Referred to as the Kore, theseNilo-Saharan-speakingNilotes were later emancipated by British colonial troops. They subsequently resettled on theLamu seaboard as fishermen and cultivators. Like many Bantus, the Kore reportedly now speak theAfro-AsiaticSomali language on account of their time in servitude.[25]
In addition to Bantu plantation slaves, Somalis sometimes enslaved peoples ofOromo pastoral backgrounds that were captured during wars and raids on settlements.[26][5] However, there were marked differences in terms of the perception, capture, treatment and duties of the Oromo slaves in comparison to Bantu slaves.[5]
On an individual basis, Oromo subjects were not viewed as raciallyjareer by their Somali captors.[5] The Oromo captives also mostly consisted of young children and women, both of whom were taken into the families of their abductors; men were usually killed during the raids. Oromo boys and girls were adopted by their Somali patrons as their own children. Prized for their beauty and viewed as legitimate sexual partners, many Oromo women became either wives or concubines of their Somali captors, while others became domestic servants.[26][27] In some cases, entire Oromo clans were assimilated on a client basis into the Somali clan system.[26]
Neither captured Oromo children nor women were ever required to do plantation work, and they typically worked side-by-side with the Somali pastoralists. After an Oromo concubine gave birth to her Somali patron's child, she and the child were emancipated and the Oromo concubine acquired equal status to her abductor's Somali wife. According to theSomali Studies pioneerEnrico Cerulli, in terms ofdiya (blood money) payments in the Somalicustomary law (Xeer), the life of an Oromo slave was also equal in value to that of an ordinary ethnic Somali.[27]
Freedom for Oromo slaves was obtained throughmanumission and was typically accompanied by presents such as a spouse and livestock.[21] During abolition, former Oromo slaves, who generally maintained intimate relations with the Somali pastoralists, were also spared the harsh treatment reserved for the Bantu and Nilotic plantation slaves.[28]
The Italian colonial administration abolished slavery in Somalia at the turn of the 20th century. However, some Somali clans notably the Biimaal clan opposed this idea. The Biimaals fought the Italians to keep their slaves. From 1893, the Italian colonial authorities in Somalia did not recognize the legal status of slavery and slaves were thus legally free to leave their owners, but the Italians often returned fugitive slaves to their owners if the owners belonged to clans friendly to the Italians; in 1903–1904, after pressure from humanitarians, the Italians banned the slave trade and declared that all slaves born after 1890 were legally free.[29]: 39–40
When the Italian government took over the administration of Somalia in 1906, they did free slaves in urban territories via compensation, but did not act to free slaves in the interior of the countryand in fact tried to stop the wave of fugitives who left their owners as news of the Italian emancipation reach the rural interior since it was a cause of unrest, but numerous slaves did leave their enslavers in the inland and in any cases settled in their own villages of former slaves and client cultivators of land under clans.[29]: 40
The Italians reported to theAdvisory Committee of Experts on Slavery in the 1930s that the slavery and slave trade in Somalia had now been abolished.[29]: 226 However, although the Italians freed some Bantus, some Bantu groups remained enslaved well into the 1930s and continued to be despised and discriminated against by large parts of Somali society.[23]: 29–30
