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Sindhi literature (Sindhi:سنڌي ادب) is the collection oforal and written literature in theSindhi language inprose (romantic tales and epic stories) andpoetry (ghazals andnazm). The Sindhi language of the province ofSindh inPakistan is considered one of the oldest languages ofancient India, and influenced the language ofIndus Valley inhabitants. Sindhi literature has developed over a thousand years.[1][2][3][4]
According to historiansNabi Bux Baloch,Rasool Bux Palijo, andG. M. Syed, Sindhi influencedHindi in the pre-Islamic era. After the advent ofIslam in the eighth century,Arabic andPersian influenced the region's inhabitants and were official languages.[5][6]Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai,Shah Abdul Karim Bulri,Shaikh Ayaz andUstad Bukhari are notable Sindhi poets.
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LocalHindu rajas had ruled Sindh. In 712, theArabs conquered the region. They did not speak Sindhi, but Sindhi writers and poets played a role in development of the Sindhi and Arabic languages. TheQuran was translated into Sindhi, and Sindhi books were translated into Arabic. Sindhiqasida (odes) were written, and Sindhi books were used in religious schools. The Persian-language Sindh historyChach Nama was written at this time.[7][8][9]
As the Arabs lost control of Sindh, Sindhi-speaking inhabitants became rulers. This period is known as the classical period of Sindhi literature, although Persian remained the administrative language and Arabic remained a religious language. TheSoomra dynasty ruled Sindh for over three centuries. The Sindhi language expanded and new literary ideas were expressed in Gech (گيچ) and Gahi (ڳاھ).[10]
This was a period of prosperity and Sindhi linguistic development; Sindhi was a source for Islamic preaching.Sindhi poetry and satire evolved.Baktar Jiramdas wrote:
[The] Sindhi language was made as a source for Islamic preaching. Apart from this, natural Sindhi poetry also started to set evolutionary goals. In the Arabic books, there is also this unprovenness. From what I know, at that time there was a satirical language and there was literature in it. In the 19th century AD, a traveling scholar "Acharya Adyutan" came to Sindh from the court of Saurashtra to study Sindh and Sindhi language. He died in 778 AD and wrote the bookKawab Malha Kaha on the basis of his study. But he writes about Sindhi poetry: "We are those Sindhi poets who had a taste for melodious songs. They sang their song in a very melodious manner with the delicacy of Minaj and Dar."[11][12]
The Samma had been allied with the Soomra, but Hameer (the last Soomra ruler) was defeated by the Samma ruler Jam Unar. Jam Unar became the ruler ofThatta. Although this period is considered fruitful for Sindhi literature, Persian remained the administrative language and Arabic the religious language. Sindh's borders reachedMultan, Bhawalwapur, Pasni, Khatiyawar,Makran,Sibi, Kuch andKalat, and Thatta became a center of knowledge.
Shah Beg Arghun's father, Amir Zulnun Arghun, ruledQandar on behalf ofMirza Shah Hussain Baiqra. In 1507, after Amir Zulnun Arghun's murder, Shah Beg Arghun took control of Shal-e-Sabi, Kabul and Kandar-Chidi inBalochistan. Due to the weakness ofJam Feroz,Jam Salahuddin rebelled; this led to civil war. Shah Beg Arghun conquered Sindh in 1521.
Shah Beg Arghun died on 22Sha'ban 928AH (1522 AD), and Hakim Theo conquered the Saju region (as far as Multan) in 1526 AD. Humayun defeated Sher Shah Suri, and died in 1541.Akbar was born the following year inUmerkot.
Mah Rahat went to Iran and died on 10 July 1543. In 1554, Shah Hassan Arghun died. Sindh was divided between two families; northern Sindh came under the control of Sultan Mahmud Bakri, who was governor of Bakr during the reign of Shah Hasan Arghun.
When Amir Mirza Isa Tarkhan took control of Henahin Sanad, theTarkhan dynasty began.Ghazi Beg was appointed thenawab of Nani, and Sindh became part of theMughal Empire. During Mughal rule,subahdars were appointed in Yernani, Bakr and Siwat. UnderMuhammad Shah, Mughal power weakened. TheKalhora dynasty became stronger in Sindh, and established their own government.[13]
Due to the unrest, the scholars of Sindh migrated to Arabia and Gujarat. There was chaos in Central Asia, which led to the emigration of intellectuals to Sindh. After them, the church of knowledge was established as a seminary. Persian was the Arghuns' mother tongue, and poetry was written in Persian andUrdu.[14]
After the fall of theSamma dynasty, three noble families ruled Sindh for about two centuries. The Sindhi poetShah Abdul Karim Bulri, forefather of poetShah Abdul Latif Bhittai, was born.[15]
Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai (1689–1752) lived during theKalhora dynasty, a significant period in the history of Sindhi literature. The Sindhi language was standardized at this time, and classical Sindhi poetry flourished with Shah Latif's work. Shah Latif invented a variant of thetanbur, a musical instrument played when poetry is sung. His compilation,Shah Jo Risalo, includes "Sassi Punnun" and "Umar Marvi".[1]
Shah Latif traveled to remote regions of Sindh, studying its people and their attachment to its land, culture, music, art and crafts. He described Sindh and its people infolk tales, expressing ideas about the universal brotherhood of mankind,patriotism, the struggle against injustice and tyranny, and the beauty of human existence. Also a musician, Shah Latif composed fifteensvaras (melodies). Each line of his poetry is sung on a specificsvara.Khawaja Muhammad Zaman of Luari, whose poetry appears in Abdul Rahim Garhori'sShara Abyat Sindhi, was another notable Kalhora Sufi poet.
Sachal Sarmast,Sami andKhalifo Nabi Bux Laghari were celebrated poets of theTalpur period (1783–1843).Khalifo Nabi Bux was an epic poet known for his depictions of patriotism and the art of war.Rohal,Bedil,Bekas,Syed Misri Shah,Hammal Faqir,Sufi Dalpat,Syed Sabit Ali Shah,Khair Shah,Fateh Faqir andManthar Faqir Rajar were other noteworthy poets of the pre- and early British era.
During the Mughal Empire, theKalhora clan became strong and assisted the Mughal rulers. Yar Muhammad Kalhoro executed the poetShah Abdul Karim Bulri,[citation needed] and became the first ruler of theKalhora dynasty.Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai flourished at this time, which is considered a golden age of Sindhi literature because the rulers were Sindhi.[16]
This period was the foundation of Sindhi prose. After theTalpur defeated the Kalhora, they ruled Sindh for about 150 years. The British defeated the untrained Talpur army.[17]
The British conquered Sindh in 1843, and Sindhi replaced Persian as the official language and medium of education. A committee of scholars discussed the alphabet, andPerso-Arabic script was adopted and implemented. In addition to textbooks,poetry andprose books began to be published.[18][1]
Pakistan was founded in 1947, and Sindhi literature began to explore economic and social topics.[19][1]
Modern Sindhi literature began with the region's 1843 conquest by the British, when theprinting press was introduced. Magazines and newspapers popularized Sindhi literature, and books were translated from a number of European languages (particularlyEnglish).Mirza Kalich Beg wrote more than four hundred works (including poetry, novels, short stories and essays) about science, history, economics and politics during the last two decades of the nineteenth century and the first two decades of the twentieth.[1] Thousands of books were published at that time, andHakeem Fateh Mohammad Sehwani,Kauromal Khilnani,Dayaram Gidumal,Lalchand Amardinomal,Bheruamal Advani,Hotchand Molchand Gurbuxani,Jethmal Parsram,Miran Mohammad Shah, andMaulana Din Muhammad Wafai were pioneers of modern Sindhi literature.
In India, theSahitya Akademi Award for Sindhi literature has been given annually since 1959. AfterWorld War I, Sindhi literature was affected by theOctober Revolution and other socioeconomic changes. Literature became more objective and less romantic, andprogressivism was an influence.
The struggle for freedom from theBritish gathered momentum, sparking interest in Sindh's history andcultural heritage. Scholars such asAllama I. I. Kazi, his wifeElsa Kazi,Rasool Bux Palijo,G. M. Syed,Umer Bin Mohammad Daudpota,Pir Ali Muhammad Shah Rashidi,Pir Husamuddin Shah Rashidi,Maulana deen Muhammad Wafai,Jairamdas Daulatram,Hashmat Kevalramani,Bherumal Meharchand Advani,Muhammad Ibrahim Joyo, andAllah Dad Bohyo published works on history andculture.
Poets such asMir Abdul Hussain Sangi pioneered poetry in Persianmeter.
The novel and short story became the main prose forms, and hundreds of each were translated fromEuropean languages to thelanguages of Pakistan.World War II saw the emergence of novelists and short-story writers such asGobind Malhi,Sundri Uttamchandani,Popati Hiranandani,Moti Prakash,Ghulam Rabbani Agro,Jamal Abro,Shaikh Ayaz,Amar Jaleel,Naseem Kharal,Agha Saleem,Tariq Ashraf,Shaukat Shoro, andMadad Ali Sindhi. Sindhi drama has also flourished, and Aziz Kingrani has written scores of plays.[20][21]
Young writers have experimented with new forms of prose and poetry.Free verse,sonnets andballads have been written, in addition to classical forms such askafi,bayt, andgeet.
Notable Sindh poets areMakhdoom Muhammad Zaman Talib-ul-Mola,Ustad Bukhari,Shaikh Ayaz, Darya Khan Rind,Ameen Faheem, andImdad Hussaini. Mubarak Ali Lashari is a literary critic and the author ofKuthyas Kawejan.[22]
Noor-ud-din Sarki andAbdul Ghafoor Ansari foundedSindhi Adabi Sangat, an organization of Sindhi-language writers originally centered inKarachi, in 1952.[citation needed] The organization has chapters elsewhere in Pakistan and overseas.
Gul Phul is a popular children's magazine which was edited by authorAkbar Jiskani.[23]Laat, a magazine published by Mehran Publications, was founded by Altaf Malkani andZulfiqar Ali Bhatti (author of the spy novelKhofnaak Saazish). TheSindhi Adabi Board has published books for children.[24]Waskaro, a magazine which began publication in 1990, contains short stories, poems and articles.[25] TheSindhi Language Authority has also published books for children.
The earliest references to Sindhi literature are byArab historians; Sindhi was among the earliest Eastern languages into which the Quran was translated in the eighth or ninth century AD. Evidence exists that Sindhi poets recited verses before Muslim caliphs ruled inBaghdad. Secular treatises were written in Sindhi aboutastronomy,medicine, andhistory during the eighth and ninth centuries.Pir Nooruddin, anIsmaili missionary who lived in Sindh in 1079, wroteSufi poetry in Sindhi. His verses, known asginans, are an example of early Sindhi poetry. Because Pir Nooruddin was a Sufi, his verses describemysticism and religion.
Pir Shams Sabzwari Multani, Pir Shahabuddin andPir Sadardin also wrote Sindhi poetry, and some verses by BabaFarid Ganj Shakar were written in Sindhi.Pir Sadruddin was another major Sufi Sindhi poet, composing verse in Sindhi'sLari andKatchi dialects. He also wrote inPunjabi,Seraiki,Hindi, andGujarati. Sadruddin modified Sindhi script, which was commonly used by thelohana caste of SindhHindus who embraced Islam as a result of his teaching; he called themKhuwajas orKhojas.
During theSamma dynasty (1351–1521), Sindh produced notable scholars and poets; the Sammas were some of Sindh's original inhabitants. Mamui Faqirs' (Seven Sages) riddles in verse are associated with this period. Ishaq Ahingar (Blacksmith) was also a notable contemporary poet. Sufi scholar and poetQazi Qadan (died 1551) composeddohas and Sortha poetry, and was a landmark of Sindhi literature.Shah Abdul Karim Bulri,Shah Lutufullah Qadri,Shah Inayat Rizvi, andMakhdoom Nuh ofHala are among other authors of Sindhi mystic, romantic and epic poetry.
During the Soomra era, Islamic missionaries arrived in Sindh andginans (religious poetry) became popular. The most popular ginans were written by Pir Shihab al-Din and his son,Pir Sadardin, who developed a 40-character Sindhi alphabet.[27]
