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While in ordinary speech, the termssex andgender are often used interchangeably, in contemporary academic literature, the terms often have distinct meanings, especially when referring to people.[1][2]Sex generally refers to an organism's assigned biological sex, whilegender usually refers to either social roles typically associated with the sex of a person (gender role) or personal identification of one's own gender based on their own personal sense of it (gender identity).[3][4][5][6] Most contemporary social scientists,[7][8][9] behavioral scientists and biologists,[10][11] many legal systems and government bodies and intergovernmental agencies such as theWHO make a distinction between gender and sex.[12][13] In most individuals, the various biological determinants of sex are congruent, and sex is consistent with the individual's gender identity, but in rare circumstances, an individual'sassigned sex and gender do not align, and the person may betransgender.[14][3]
Thoughsex andgender have been used interchangeably at least as early as the fourteenth century, this usage was not common by the late 1900s.[15]SexologistJohn Money pioneered the concept of a distinction between biological sex and gender identity in 1955.[16][17] However,Issac Madison Bentley had already defined gender as the "socialized obverse of sex" a decade earlier, in 1945.[18][19] As originally conceived by Money, gender and sex are analysed together as a single category including both biological and social elements, but later work byRobert Stoller separated the two, designating sex and gender as biological and cultural categories, respectively.[20][improper synthesis?] Before the work of Bentley, Money and Stoller, the word gender was only regularly used to refer togrammatical categories.[21][22][23]
TheOxford English Dictionary defines sex as "Either of the two main categories (male and female) into which humans and many other living things are divided on the basis of their reproductive functions".[24] A further annotation exists on a separate definition stating that "The word sex tends now to refer to biological differences, while gender often refers to cultural or social ones."[24]
Merriam-Webster defines sex as "either of the two major forms of individuals that occur in many species and that are distinguished respectively as female or male especially on the basis of their reproductive organs and structures." or "the sum of the structural, functional, and sometimes behavioral characteristics of organisms that distinguish males and females". They also note that "[d]octors can alter the physical characteristics of sex, but bodily sex does not determine gender."[25]
Anisogamy, or the size differences ofgametes (sex cells), is the defining feature of the two sexes.[26][27][28][29][30]
By definition,males are organisms that produce small, mobile gametes (sperm); whilefemales are organisms that produce large and generally immobile gametes (ova or eggs).[30][31][32][33][34]Richard Dawkins stated that it is possible to interpret all the differences between thesexes as stemming from this single difference in gametes.[35]
Bhargava et al. note that the terms sex and gender are not, and should not be used as, interchangeable terms. They state that "[s]ex is dichotomous, with sex determination in the fertilized zygote stemming from unequal expression of sex chromosomal genes." In contrast, gender is seen as including "perception of the individual as male, female, or other, both by the individual and by society".[14] The authors differentiate betweensex differences, caused by biological factors, andgender differences, which "reflect a complex interplay of psychological, environmental, cultural, and biological factors".[14] Gender identity is thus seen as a "psychological concept that refers to an individual's self-perception".[14]
The termsex differences is typically applied tosexually dimorphic traits that are hypothesized to be evolved consequences ofsexual selection.[36] For example, thehuman "sex difference" in height is a consequence of sexual selection, while the "gender difference" typically seen in head hair length (women with longer hair) is not.[37] Scientific research shows an individual's sex influences their behavior.[38][39][40][41][42]
Sex differences are primarily caused by hormonal, genetic, and environmental factors.[14] According toDavid Geary, the most fundamental sex difference in humans is the respective cost of reproduction, which is higher for females than males because of pregnancy and higher postnatal parental expenditure, resulting in different mating choice preferences for males and females.[43]
TheAmerican Psychiatric Association states that "Sex is often described as a biological construct defined on an anatomical, hormonal, or genetic basis."[44]
Robert Stoller, whose work was the first to treat sex and gender as "two different orders of data", in his bookSex and Gender: The Development of Masculinity and Femininity,[45] uses the term 'sex' to refer to the "male or the female sex and the component biological parts that determine whether one is a male or a female".[46] He further states that, in order to determine sex, chromosomes, external genitalia, internal genitalia, gonads, hormonal states, secondary sex characteristics, and possibly also brain systems, must be analysed. He states that a person's sex is determined by "an algebraic sum of all these qualities", resulting in most people being classified as either 'male' or 'female'.[47]
One of the (context dependant) guidelines used by theAmerican Psychological Association states that "[t]here are a number of indicators of biological sex, including sex chromosomes, gonads, internal reproductive organs, and external genitalia."[48]
InThe Psychology of Gender, it is stated that "sex refers to the biological categories of female and male, categories distinguished by genes, chromosomes, and hormones."[49]
SociologistDudley Poston states that sex in humans is "determined biologically, in five ways":
According to Poston, "[s]ex refers mainly to biological characteristics, while gender refers mainly to sociological characteristics."[51]
While noting that typically sex is assigned based on genital inspection at birth, Raine Dozier states that biological sex is "a complex constellation of chromosomes, hormones, genitalia, and reproductive organs."[52]
In theOxford English Dictionary,gender is defined as—in a modern and especially feminist use—"a euphemism for the sex of a human being, often intended to emphasize the social and cultural, as opposed to the biological, distinctions between the sexes", with the earliest example cited being from 1963.[53] TheMerriam-Webster Dictionary definesgender as “a subclass within a grammatical class (such as noun, pronoun, adjective, or verb) of a language that is partly arbitrary but also partly based on distinguishable characteristics (such as shape, social rank, manner of existence, or sex) and that determines agreement with and selection of other words or grammatical forms”.[54] TheBritannica dictionary definesgender as “a person's own sense of being male, female, some combination of male and female, or neither male nor female”.[55] TheAmerican Heritage Dictionary (5th edition) states thatgender may be defined by identity as "neither entirely female nor entirely male"; itsUsage Note adds:
Some people maintain that the wordsex should be reserved for reference to the biological aspects of being male or female or to sexual activity, and that the wordgender should be used only to refer to sociocultural roles. ... In some situations this distinction avoids ambiguity, as ingender research, which is clear in a way thatsex research is not. The distinction can be problematic, however. Linguistically, there isn't any real difference betweengender bias andsex bias, and it may seem contrived to insist thatsex is incorrect in this instance.[56]
Transgender people experience a mismatch between theirgender identity orgender expression, and theirsex assigned at birth.[57][58] Transgender people are sometimes calledtranssexual if they desiregender-affirming care totransition from one sex to another.[59]
Transgender is also anumbrella term: in addition to including people whose gender identity is theopposite of their assigned sex (trans men andtrans women), it may include people who are not exclusively masculine or feminine (e.g. people who aregenderqueer,non-binary,bigender,pangender,genderfluid, oragender).[58][60][61] Other definitions oftransgender also include people who belong to athird gender, or conceptualize transgender people as a third gender.[62][63] Infrequently, the termtransgender is defined very broadly to includecross-dressers.[64]
The historic meaning ofgender, ultimately derived from Latingenus, was of "kind" or "variety".[21] By the 20th century, this meaning was obsolete, and the word gender was almost always used to refer togrammatical categories, although there are a small number of examples of gender being used as a synonym for sex prior to the 20th century, and even as early as 1474.[22][23][20][65] This changed in the early 1970s when the work ofJohn Money, particularly the popular college textbookMan & Woman, Boy & Girl, was embraced byfeminist theory. This meaning ofgender is now prevalent in the social sciences, although in many other contexts,gender includessex or replaces it.[2] As formulated by Money, gender is seen as an additional variable of sex. The later work ofRobert Stoller, who innovated the term "gender identity", separated gender from sex as specifically cultural and biological categories, respectively, and treated them as "two different orders of data".[66] Other studies have noted that, while there is some tentative evidence for a potential genetic, neuroanatomical, and hormonal basis for gender identity, the specific biological mechanisms involved have not yet been demonstrated.[67]
There is little general agreement among archaeologists about what can be accurately stated about gender identities, roles, and processes in the earliest human societies between 40,000 and 4,000 years before the present.[68] There is a consensus that cultures at this time differentiated categories of people by 'gender', if this is defined as rules of behavior and roles based on sex.[68] It is likely that the highly differentiated cultures of this period did not possess a single gender classification system, and instead their conception of gender may have been culture-specific, much like contemporary societies.[68] It is feasible that some of the cultures of this era recognised up to five genders. For example, certain production roles, spiritual leaders, and healers may have been recognised as distinct genders.[68][69] Whether or not social roles, such as religious leadership, were based upon gender, rather than age or skills, continues to be debated.[70]
Some archaeological evidence suggests that gender, in the sense of social and behavioral distinctions, arose "at least by some 30,000 years ago".[71] More evidence was found as of "26,000 years ago", at least at the archeological siteDolní Věstonice I and others, in what is now the Czech Republic.[72][73] This is during theUpper Paleolithic time period.[74] From theMesolithic, various evidence suggests gender-differentiated tool use and diet in some cultures. By this time, it is likely that gender had become an important element of the organizational structure of these societies. Similar grave goods found in male and female high-status burials of this period, however, indicate that status was not simply based on gender. There is also much more evidence for the recognition of third and fourth genders from this period.[68]
In 2011, it was reported that an untypicalCorded Ware burial, dated to between 2900 and 2500 B.C., had been discovered inPrague.[75] The remains, believed to be anatomically male, were orientated in the same way as women's burials and were not accompanied by any gender-specific grave goods. Based on this the archaeologist Kamila Věšínová suggests that it was likely that this was an individual "with a different sexual orientation, homosexual or transsexual",[76] while media reports heralded the discovery of the world's first "gay caveman".[77] Archaeologists and biological anthropologists criticised media coverage as sensationalist, as well as criticising Věšínová's original statement, in which she conflates sex, gender, and sexuality,[76] arguing that, although the burial might well represent a transgender individual, it does not necessarily mean that they had a different sexual orientation, or that their culture would have considered them 'homosexual'.[78] Jan Turek notes that there are several examples of Corded Ware graves containing older biological males with typically female grave goods and body orientation. He suggests that "aged men may have decided to 'retire' as women for symbolic and practical reasons."[79]
Used primarily in sociology and gender studies,doing gender is the socially constructed performance which takes place during routine human interactions, rather than as a set of essentialized qualities based on one's biological sex.[80] The term first appeared in Candace West and Don Zimmerman's article "Doing Gender", published in the peer-reviewed journal,Gender and Society.[81] Originally written in 1977 but not published until 1987,[82] "Doing Gender" is the most cited article published inGender and Society.[81]
West and Zimmerman state that to understand gender as activity, it is important to differentiate between sex, sex category, and gender.[80]: 127 They say that sex refers to the socially agreed upon specifications that establish one as male or female; sex is most often based on an individual's genitalia, or even their chromosomal typing before birth.[80] They consider sex categories to be dichotomous, and that the person is placed in a sex category by exhibiting qualities exclusive to one category or the other. During most interactions, others situate a person's sex by identifying their sex category; however, they believe that a person's sex need not align with their sex category.[80] West and Zimmerman maintain that the sex category is "established and sustained by the socially required identificatory displays that proclaim one's membership in one or the other category".[80]: 127 Gender is the performance of attitudes and actions that are considered socially acceptable for one's sex category.[80]: 127
West and Zimmerman suggested that the interactional process ofdoing gender, combined with socially agreed upon gender expectations, holds individuals accountable for their gender performances.[80] They also believe that while "doing gender" appropriately strengthens and promotes social structures based on the genderdichotomy, it inappropriately does not call into question these same social structures; only the individual actor is questioned.[80] The concept of "doing gender" recognizes that gender both structures human interactions and is created through them.[80]
The termgender is sometimes used by linguists to refer to social gender as well as grammatical gender.[83] Some languages, such as German or Finnish, have no separate words for sex and gender. German, for example, uses "Biologisches Geschlecht" for biological sex, and "Soziales Geschlecht" for gender when making this distinction.[84] Traditionally, however, a distinction has been made by linguists betweensex andgender, wheresex refers primarily to the attributes of real-world entities – the relevant extralinguistic attributes being, for instance, male, female, non-personal, and indeterminate sex – andgrammatical gender refers to a category, such as masculine, feminine, and neuter (frequently based on sex, but not exclusively so in all languages), that determines theagreement between nouns of different genders and associated words, such as articles and adjectives.[85]
A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language, for instance, states
By GENDER is meant a grammatical classification of nouns, pronouns, or other words in the noun phrase according to certain meaning-related distinctions, especially a distinction related to the sex of the referent.[86]
Thus German, for instance, has three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter. Nouns referring to people and animals of known sex aregenerally referred to by nouns with the equivalent gender. ThusMann (meaning man) is masculine and is associated with a masculine definite article to giveder Mann, whileFrau (meaning woman) is feminine and is associated with a feminine definite article to givedie Frau. However the words for inanimate objects are commonly masculine (e.g.der Tisch, the table) or feminine (die Armbanduhr, the watch), and grammatical gender can diverge from biological sex; for instance the feminine noun[die] Person refers to a person of either sex, and the neuter noun[das] Mädchen means "the girl".[87]
In modern English, there is no true grammatical gender in this sense, though the differentiation, for instance, between the pronouns "he" and "she", which in English refers to a difference in sex (or social gender), is sometimes referred to as a gender distinction.[85]A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language, for instance, refers to the semantically based "covert" gender (e.g. male and female, not masculine and feminine) of English nouns, as opposed to the "overt" gender of some English pronouns; this yieldsnine gender classes: male, female, dual, common, collective, higher male animal, higher female animal, lower animal, and inanimate, and these semantic gender classes affect the possible choices of pronoun for coreference to the real-life entity, e.g.who andhe forbrother butwhich andit orshe forcow.[86]
On January 20, 2025, PresidentDonald Trump signedExecutive Order 14168 regarding the U.S. official definitions of sex and gender identity. The Executive Order defines sex as strictly biological and unchangeable. Gender identity is framed as a "subjective sense of self" that should not be considered a replacement for sex.[88]
TheUnited States Census Bureau performs a census of the U.S. population every ten years. The questionnaire asks one question about sex, phrased as "What is person 1's sex?" and provides two checkboxes for the response, labeled "Male" and "Female".[89] An explanatory page explains this question, using the termsex: as "We ask one question about a person's sex to better understand demographic characteristics."[89] The U.S. Census has had a question about sex on the census since the1790 census.[89] The U.S. Census recognizes the difference between the termssex andgender, the fact they are often confused or used interchangeably, and may differ across cultures and time, and explains that what the census attempts to measure, is "the sex composition of the population".[90]
The Australian government provides guidelines on sex and gender to the public based on legislation passed in 2013. The guidelines recognize that "individuals may identify as a gender other than the sex they were assigned at birth, or may not identify as exclusively male or female".[91] TheAustralian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) gathers data about the population broken down in various ways, including by sex and gender.[92] They require precise formulations of these terms, and go into some detail aboutsex recorded at birth, possible changes in sex assignment later in life, the meaning ofgender and how it differs fromsex.[93] ABS recognizes the popular confusion among the two terms, and provide descriptions of how to phrase surveys so as to elicit accurate responses for the purposes of the data they collect.[94]
The government of the state ofWestern Australia recognizes a clear distinction betweensex andgender providing a nuanced definition of each, including complications involved insex beyond just sex assigned at birth, and the socially constructed nature of gender, including possible non-binary aspects.[95]
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The United Kingdom Office for National Statistics (ONS) describes definitions provided by the UK government that make clear distinctions between the "biological aspects" of sex, "generally male or female", and "assigned at birth", while describing gender as a "social construction relating to behaviours and attributes based on labels of masculinity and femininity".[96] Pilot plans for the 2021 Census for England and Wales would have allowed respondents to answer the sex question with reference to their gender identity, despite the addition of a separate new question on gender identity.[97] Quantitative social scientists criticised the ONS's apparent confusion between the concepts of sex and gender identity.[98] The matter was taken to Judicial Review by feminist group Fair Play for Women. The ONS argued that sex was an "umbrella concept", but this view was rejected by the presiding judge as unpersuasive. The guidance was changed so that sex was clearly indicated as legal sex rather than identity.[99]
TheWorld Health Organization's definesgender as "socially constructed", andsex as characteristics that are "biologically determined", drawing a distinction between the sex categories of male and female, and the genders "girls and boys who grow into men and women".[100]Fenway Health definegender as: "The characteristics and roles of women and men according to social norms. While sex is described as female, male, and intersex, gender can be described as feminine, masculine, androgynous, and much more."[101] According to theCenters for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), people whose internal psychological experience differs from theirassigned sex aretransgender,transsexual, ornon-binary.[102]
TheFood and Drug Administration (FDA) used to usegender instead ofsex when referring to physiological differences between male and female organisms.[103] In 2011, they reversed their position on this and began usingsex as the biological classification andgender as "a person's self representation as male or female, or how that person is responded to by social institutions based on the individual's gender presentation".[104]Gender is also now commonly used even to refer to the physiology of non-human animals, without any implication of social gender roles.[2]
TheAmerican Psychiatric Association (APA) in theirGuide for Working With Transgender and Gender Nonconforming Patients (TGNC Guide) has guidance for psychiatrists about gender, sex, and orientation.[105] The TGNC definesgender as comprising two components:gender identity andgender expression. They definesex in biological terms, as "anatomical, hormonal, or genetic", and mentions birth assignment of sex based on external genital appearance.[106]
TheAmerican Psychological Association saysgender is "socially constructed"[107] andsex "usually refers to the characteristics and traits of biological sex".[108] TheAmerican Medical Association states that "sex and gender are similar concepts. Both are socially constructed".[109] TheNational Institutes of Health saysgender is "socially constructed",[110] andsex "usually refers to a person's biological characteristics".[110] TheAmerican Medical Women's Association defines gender as "socially constructed",[111] and sex as "biological differences between females and males, including chromosomes, sex organs, and endogenous hormonal profiles".[111] TheCanadian Institutes of Health Research defines gender as "socially constructed",[112] and sex as "biologically attributed"[112]
GLAAD (formerly the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation) makes a distinction between sex and gender. In their Media Reference Guide for transgender issues, they describe sex as "the classification of people as male or female" at birth, based on "external anatomy" and other bodily characteristics such as chromosomes, hormones, internal reproductive organs, and genitalia. GLAAD notes that "sex is not solely determined by anatomy, nor is it strictly binary".[113] They define gender identity as "a person's internal, deeply held knowledge of their gender".[113]
Simone de Beauvoir'sThe Second Sex is generally cited as responsible for bringing the sex/gender distinction intofeminist theory, which has since become a standard.[114] Consequently, manyfeminists consider sex to only be a matter of biology and not a social construction.[115][116]Gayle Rubin, for example, defines her influential concept of thesex/gender system as "the set of arrangements by which a society transforms biological sexuality into products of human activity”.[117]
However, feminists who maintain that sex is also constructed are critical of the distinction.[115][116]Materialist feminists such asChristine Delphy,Colette Guillaumin andMonique Wittig argue that naturalizing sex neglects its social character.[118] Building off Wittig,Judith Butler writes:
If the immutable character of sex is contested, perhaps this construct called "sex" is as culturally constructed as gender; indeed, perhaps it was always already gender, with the consequence that the distinction between sex and gender turns out to be no distinction at all.[119]
Sara Heinämaa believes that the receivedAnglo-American reading of Beauvoir is mistaken:
In Beauvoir’sphenomenological perspective, “sex” (female/male) cannot be conceived as a natural basis for “gender” construction, and “gender” should not be viewed as the cultural interpretation of a pregiven “sex.” Both sex and gender must be seen as theoretical abstractions or idealizations, developed in specific practices of explaining and predicting human behavior and based on the feminine and masculine styles oflived experience.[120]
Mari Mikkola has put forward the "Trait/Norm Covariance Model", divided into descriptive traits and evaluative norms, as a suggested replacement. In this model, the term "descriptive traits" includes physical and anatomical traits, roles, and self-conceptions.[121] So for example, "sex traits" (such as having ovaries) and "gender traits" (such as wearing make-up) are both subsumed under the category of descriptive traits, whereas "being feminine" is taken as an evaluative norm.[122] Evaluative norms reflect how descriptive traits are evaluated by external observers, and certain descriptive traits may correlate with certain evaluative norms.[123] So for example the trait "having long hair" covaries strongly with feminine norms in some cultures, and less so in others.[124]
Some psychologists have argued that the distinction between the terms "sex" and "gender" should be abandoned.[125] The term "gender/sex" has been proposed, to emphasise the inseparability of biological and cultural factors.[126][127]
Diane Halpern, in her bookSex Differences in Cognitive Abilities, argued problems withsex vs.gender terminology:
I cannot argue (in this book) that nature and nurture are inseparable and then... use different terms to refer to each class of variables. The... biological manifestations of sex are confounded with psychosocial variables.... The use of different terms to label these two types of contributions to human existence seemed inappropriate in light of the biopsychosocial position I have taken.
She quotesSteven Pinker's summary of the problems with the terms sex and gender: "Part of it is a new prissiness—many people today are as squeamish about sexual dimorphism as the Victorians were about sex. But part of it is a limitation of the English language. The word 'sex' refers ambiguously to copulation and to sexual dimorphism...".[128] Richard Lippa writes inGender, Nature and Nurture that:
Some researchers have argued that the wordsex should be used to refer to (biological differences), whereas the wordgender should be used to refer to (cultural differences). However, it is not at all clear the degree to which the differences between males and females are due to biological factors versus learned and cultural factors. Furthermore, indiscriminate use of the wordgender tends to obscure the distinction between two different topics: (a) differences between males and females, and (b) individual differences in maleness and femaleness that occur within each sex.[129]
It has been suggested that more useful distinctions to make would be whether a behavioral difference between the sexes is first due to an evolvedadaptation, then, if so, whether the adaptation is sexually dimorphic (different) or sexually monomorphic (the same in both sexes).[130] The termsex difference could then be re-defined as between-sex differences that are manifestations of a sexually dimorphic adaptation (which is how many scientists use the term), while the termgender difference could be re-defined as due to differential socialization between the sexes of a monomorphic adaptation or byproduct.[131] For example, greater male propensity toward physical aggression and risk taking would be termed a "sex difference;" the generally longer head hair length of females would be termed a "gender difference".[132]
Mary Hawkesworth and Lisa Disch note that some feminist theorists have criticised the biological basis of sexual dimorphism. These theorists claim to have demonstrated that there are more than two naturally occurring sexes, and that, whether defined in terms of chromosomes, hormones, gonads, internal morphology, external genitalia, or secondary sex characteristics, "none of the typical correlates of biological sex conform to the demands of dichotomous classification", and that all these characteristics "fail to differentiate all men from all women or to provide a common core within each sex".[133]
Andrea Dworkin wrote: "We are, clearly, a multisexed species which has its sexuality spread along a vast continuum where the elements called male and female are not discrete."[134] This inspiredJohn Stoltenberg's 1989 essay "How Men Have (a) Sex", in which he argues that sex is a social construct.[135] SociologistJudith Lorber also states that many conventional indicators of sex are not sufficient to demarcate male from female, and that there is more diversity within the individual categories of sex and gender—female/male and feminine/masculine, respectively—than between them.[136] Hence, her fundamental claim is that neither sex nor gender arenatural kinds.
In the field offeminist metaphysics, sexual difference is discussed byElizabeth Grosz,Gayatri Spivak,Hélène Cixous,Jane Gallop,Judith Butler,Luce Irigaray,Moira Gatens, Monique Wittig,Naomi Schor, andVicki Kirby, among others.[137]
Suzanne Kessler, in a 1990 survey of medical specialists in pediatric intersexuality, found out that when a child was born with XY chromosomes but ambiguous genitalia, their sex was often determined according to the size of their penis. Thus, even if the sex/gender distinction holds, the dichotomies of female/male and masculine/feminine are not themselves exhaustive.[138]
Anne Fausto-Sterling'sSexing the Body famously addresses the birth of intersex children. In their case, the standard model (sex/gender distinction) is seen as incorrect with regard to its notion that there are only two sexes, male and female. This is because "complete maleness and complete femaleness represent the extreme ends of a spectrum of possible body types." In other words, Fausto-Sterling argues that sex is a continuum. She believes that sex is socially constructed because nature does not decide on who is seen as a male or female physically. Rather, doctors decide what seems to be a "natural" sex for the inhabitants of society. In addition, the gender, behavior, actions, and appearance of males/females is also seen as socially constructed because codes of femininity and masculinity are chosen and deemed fit by society for societal usage.[139]
HistorianThomas W. Laqueur suggests that from the Renaissance to the 18th century, there was a prevailing inclination among doctors towards the existence of only one biological sex (theone-sex theory, that women and men had the same fundamental reproductive structure).[140]: 134 In somediscourses, this view persisted into the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.[140]: 149–151 Laqueur asserts that even at its peak, the one-sex model was supported among highly educated Europeans but is not known to have been a popular view nor one entirely agreed upon by doctors who treated the general population.[140]: 68, 135
Scholars such asJoan Cadden and Michael Stolberg have criticized Laqueur's theory. Stolberg provides evidence to suggest that significant two-sex understandings of anatomy existed before Laqueur claims, arguing that sexual dimorphism was accepted as early as the sixteenth century.[141]: 276 Joan Cadden has stated that 'one-sex' models of the body were already treated with scepticism in the ancient and medieval periods, and that Laqueur's periodisation of the shift from one-sex to two-sex was not as clear-cut as he made it out to be.[142]
One thing biologists do agree on is that males and females count as different sexes. And they also agree that the main difference between the two is gamete size: males make lots of small gametes—sperm in animals, pollen in plants—and females produce a few big eggs.
Anisogamy can be defined as a mode of sexual reproduction in which fusing gametes, formed by participating parents, are dissimilar in size.
The answer is that there is an agreement by convention: individuals producing the smaller of the two gamete types-sperm or pollen- are males, and those producing larger gametes-eggs or ovules- are females.
However, there is one fundamental feature of the sexes which can be used to label males as males, and females as females, throughout animals and plants. This is that the sex cells or 'gametes' of males are much smaller and more numerous than the gametes of females. This is true whether we are dealing with animals or plants. One group of individuals has large sex cells, and it is convenient to use the word female for them. The other group, which it is convenient to call male, has small sex cells. The difference is especially pronounced in reptiles and in birds, where a single egg cell is big enough and nutritious enough to feed a developing baby for several weeks. Even in humans, where the egg is microscopic, it is still many times larger than the sperm. As we shall see, it is possible to interpret all the other differences between the sexes as stemming from this one basic difference.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)Transgender is an umbrella term for people whose gender identity and/or gender expression differs from the sex they were assigned at birth (Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation [GLAAD], 2007).
Transgender is an umbrella term for people whose gender identities, gender expressions, and/or behaviors are different from those culturally associated with the sex to which they were assigned at birth.
Transgender: An umbrella term that describes people whose gender identity or gender expression differs from expectations associated with the sex assigned to them at birth.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)The guidelines recognise that individuals may identify as a gender other than the sex they were assigned at birth, or may not identify as exclusively male or female, and that this should be reflected in records held by the government.
The word `gender' is used to define those characteristics of women and men that are socially constructed, while `sex' refers to those that are biologically determined. People are born female or male but learn to be girls and boys who grow into women and men. This learned behaviour makes up gender identity and determines gender roles.
Sex: The term 'sex' refers to a person's biological characteristics. A person's sex is usually described as being male or female. Some people may not be exclusively male or female (the term 'intersex' is explained below). Some people identify as neither male nor female. Gender: The term 'gender' refers to the way in which a person identifies or expresses their masculine or feminine characteristics. Gender is generally understood as a social and cultural construction. A person's gender identity or gender expression is not always exclusively male or female and may or may not correspond to their sex.
Gender is used to describe the characteristics of women and men that are socially constructed, while sex refers to those that are biologically determined. People are born female or male, but learn to be girls and boys who grow into women and men. This learned behaviour makes up gender identity and determines gender roles.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)Penises and ejaculate and prostate glands occur in nature, but the notion that these anatomical traits comprise a sex—a discrete class, separate and distinct, metaphysically divisible from some other sex, the "other sex"—is simply that: a notion, an idea. The penises exist; the male sex does not. The male sex is socially constructed.
My perspective goes beyond accepted feminist views that gender is a cultural overlay that modifies physiological sex differences ... I am arguing that bodies differ in many ways physiologically, but they are completely transformed by social practices to fit into the salient categories of a society, the most pervasive of which are 'female' and 'male' and 'women' and 'men'.