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TheSengoku period (戦国時代,Sengoku jidai,lit. 'Warring States period') was the period inJapanese history in whichcivil wars and social upheavals took place almost continuously in the 15th and 16th centuries. TheKyōtoku incident (1454),Ōnin War (1467), orMeiō incident [ja] (1493) are generally chosen as the period's start date, but there are many competing historiographies for its end date, ranging from 1568, the date ofOda Nobunaga's march on Kyoto, to the suppression of theShimabara Rebellion in 1638, deep into what was traditionally considered theEdo period.[1][2] Regardless of the dates chosen, the Sengoku period overlaps substantially with theMuromachi period (1336–1573).
This period was characterized by the overthrow of a superior power by a subordinate one. TheAshikaga shogunate, thede facto central government, declined and thesengoku daimyo (戦国大名, feudal lord of Sengoku period), a local power, seized wider political influence. The people rebelled against the feudal lords in revolts known asIkkō-ikki (一向一揆,Ikkō-shū uprising).[2]
The period saw a breakdown in the traditional master-servant relationship between a lord and his vassals, with many instances of vassals rebelling against their lords, internal dynastic conflict over lordships within noble families (in which vassals would take sides), and the installation of figurehead lords by cadet branches of noble families.[3] The period was also marked by the loosening of samurai culture, with people born into other social strata sometimes making a name for themselves as warriors and thus becoming samurai. In turn, events sometimes allowed commonsamurai to rise to the rank ofsengoku daimyo; these includedHōjō Sōun (the first to do so), andUesugi Kenshin, aShugodai (守護代, deputyShugo) who attained power by weakening and eventually replacing his lord.[4][5] The most spectacular example of asengoku-era rise is often considered to be that ofToyotomi Hideyoshi, who rose from a peasant background to successively become a samurai,sengoku daimyo, andkampaku (Imperial Regent).[6]
Modern Japan recognizesOda Nobunaga,Toyotomi Hideyoshi, andTokugawa Ieyasu as the three "Great Unifiers" (三英傑／さんえいけつ) for their restoration of Japan'scentral government.[7]
During this period, although theEmperor of Japan was officially the ruler of the state and every lord swore loyalty to him, he was largely a marginalized, ceremonial, and religious figure who delegated power to theshōgun, a noble who was roughly equivalent to amilitary dictator.
From 1346 to 1358, during theNanboku-cho period, the Ashikaga shogunate gradually expanded the authority of theShugo (守護), the local military and police officials established by theKamakura shogunate, giving theShugo jurisdiction over land disputes betweengokenin (御家人) and allowing theShugo to receive half of all taxes from the areas they controlled. TheShugo shared their newfound wealth with the local samurai, creating a hierarchical relationship between theShugo and the samurai, and the first earlydaimyo (大名, feudal lords), calledshugo daimyo (守護大名), appeared.[8]
In 1428,Ashikaga Yoshimochi, the fourth shogun, was ill and the question of his succession arose.Ashikaga Yoshikazu, the 5th shogun, died of illness at the age of 19, so the 6th shogun was chosen from among Yoshimochi's four brothers, and to ensure fairness, a lottery was held. The sixth shogun wasAshikaga Yoshinori. But he was not educated to be a shogun, and his temperamental and despotic behavior caused resentment.Akamatsu Mitsusuke assassinated him during theKakitsu Rebellion. This led to instability in the Ashikaga shogunate system. The shogunate gradually lost influence and control over thedaimyo.[9][10]
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The beginning of the Sengoku Period is considered to be theKyōtoku incident,Ōnin War, orMeiō incident.[2][11]
The Kyōtoku Incident was a major war in theKanto region that lasted from 1454 to 1482. The war began whenAshikaga Shigeuji ofKantō kubō (関東公方), the office of the Ashikaga shogunate in charge of the Kanto region, killed Uesugi Noritada ofKantō kanrei (関東管領), Kantō kubō's assistant. The various forces in the Kanto region divided and fought between theKubō andKanrei sides, with the Ashikaga shogunate supporting theKanrei side.[2]
Ashikaga Yoshimasa, the 8th shogun, tried to strengthen the power of the shogun, but his close associates did not follow his instructions, leading to political chaos and increasing social unrest. Since he had no sons, he tried to install his younger brotherAshikaga Yoshimi as the ninth shogun, but when his wifeHino Tomiko gave birth toAshikaga Yoshihisa, a conflict arose among theshugo daimyo as to whether Yoshimi or Yoshihisa would be the next shogun. TheHatakeyama andShiba clans were also divided into two opposing factions over succession within their own clans, andHosokawa Katsumoto andYamana Sōzen, who were father-in-law and son-in-law, were politically at odds with each other.[9][12]
In 1467, these conflicts finally led to theŌnin War (1467–1477) between the Eastern Army, led by Hosokawa Katsumoto and includingHatakeyama Masanaga, Shiba Yoshitoshi, and Ashikaga Yoshimi, and the Western Army, led by Yamana Sōzen and including Hatakeyama Yoshinari, Shiba Yoshikado, and Ashikaga Yoshihisa. In 1469, the war spread to the provinces, but in 1473, Hosokawa Katsumoto and Yamana Sōzen, the leaders of both armies, died. In 1477, the war ended when the western lords, including Hatakeyama Yoshinari andŌuchi Masahiro, withdrew their armies from Kyoto.[9][12]
The war devastated two-thirds of Kyoto, destroying many aristocratic and samurai residences,Shinto shrines, and Buddhist temples, and undermining the authority of the Ashikaga shoguns, greatly reducing their control over the various regions. The war caused disarray which rippled across Japan.[13] In addition to the military confrontations between separate states, there was also domestic fallout. In contempt of the shogunate, the daimyo who were subjected to remain in Kyoto instead returned to theirprovinces. Consequentially, some of these daimyo found that their designated retainers orshugodai, representatives of their states appointed in a daimyo's absence, rose in power either to seize control of the domain or proclaim independence as a separate domain.[14]
Thus began the Sengoku period, a period of civil war in which thedaimyo of various regions fought to expand their own power.[9][12]Daimyo who became more powerful as the shogunate's control weakened were calledsengoku daimyo (戦国大名), and they often came fromshugo daimyo,Shugodai, andkokujin or kunibito (国人, local masters). In other words,sengoku daimyo differed fromshugo daimyo in thatsengoku daimyo was able to rule the region on his own, without being appointed by the shogun.[8]
Historians often consider the Ōnin War, a ten-year conflict wrought by political turmoil, to be the trigger for what would come to be known as the Sengoku period. Thiscivil war would clearly reveal the Ashikaga shogunate's reduced authority over its shogunal administration, the provincialdaimyo and Japan as a whole; thereby a wave of unbridled conflict would spread across Japan and consume the states in an age of war. Furthermore, weariness of war, socioeconomic unrest and poor treatment by aristocrats provoked the wrath of the peasant class. Farmers, craftsmen, merchants and even villages would organize uprisings (known as"ikki") against the ruling class. An extraordinary example is theKaga Rebellion, in which the localikki had staged a large-scale revolt with the support of theTrue Pure Land sect (thereby establishing the termikkō ikki) and assumed control of the entire province ofKaga.[14][15] It is suggested by both scholars and authors that "these succession disputes still might not have led to war were it not for the shōgun's lack of leadership."[13][14]
TheKyōtoku incident in 1454,Ōnin War in 1467, orMeiō incident in 1493 is usually considered the starting point of the Sengoku period.[2][11] There are several events which could be considered the end of it: Nobunaga's entry toKyoto (1568)[16] or abolition of theMuromachi shogunate (1573)[17] or entry intoAzuchi Castle (1576), Hideyoshi's promulgation of theSōbujirei (ja) law prohibiting war (1587), thesiege of Odawara (1590), theBattle of Sekigahara (1600), the establishment of theTokugawa shogunate (1603), thesiege of Osaka (1615), or the suppression of theShimabara Rebellion (1638).[1] The old, well-known definition is that the Onin War initiated the Sengoku period in 1467; and that it ended in 1568, when Oda Nobunaga entered Kyoto in support ofAshikaga Yoshiaki.[1][2][18]
However, even if 1568 is the end date of the Sengoku period, there are also various theories about the beginning and end dates of the following Azuchi-Momoyama period. The Azuchi-Momoyama period refers to the period whenOda Nobunaga andToyotomi Hideyoshi were in power.[19] They andTokugawa Ieyasu are the three unifiers of Japan.[7] The name "Azuchi-Momoyama" comes from the fact that Nobunaga's castle,Azuchi Castle, was located inAzuchi, Shiga, andFushimi Castle, where Hideyoshi lived after his retirement, was located in Momoyama. The beginning date could be either when Oda Nobunaga entered Kyoto in 1568 to support Ashikaga Yoshiaki, or when Nobunaga expelled Ashikaga Yoshiaki from Kyoto in 1573 and destroyed the Muromachi Shogunate, or when Nobunaga moved to Azuchi Castle in 1576. It ended either when Toyotomi Hideyoshi died in 1598, or at the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, or with the opening of the Tokugawa shogunate in 1603.[19][2]
Kaga ikki occurred in 1488,Hōjō Sōun conqueredIzu province in 1491, and in 1492Hosokawa Masamoto banished the 10th shogunAshikaga Yoshitane from Kyoto and installedAshikaga Yoshizumi as the 11th shogun. Around this time, civil wars began to occur frequently throughout the country, and Buddhist temples in various regions grew as armed forces.[2]
Ashikaga Yoshihisa, who had become the ninth shogun during the Onin War, died at the age of 25, and Ashikaga Yoshitane became the 10th shogun. However, in 1493, Hosokawa Masamoto raised an army while shogun Yoshitane was away in Kyoto and installed the 11th shogun, Ashikaga Yoshizumi, in a de facto coup known as theMeio incident (明応の政変). Masamoto held the position ofKanrei (管領), second only to the shogun in the Ashikaga shogunate, and the equivalent ofShikken (執権) in the Kamakura shogunate. This made the shogun a puppet of theHosokawa clan, which served as theKanrei. In recent years, it has been theorized that this incident marked the beginning of the Sengoku period.[20][11]
Hosokawa Masamoto remained a bachelor for the rest of his life and adopted three people as his heirs. Following the advice of his vassals, Masamoto namedHosokawa Sumimoto as his successor instead ofHosokawa Sumiyuki, who had been adopted first. As a result, Masamoto was killed by Sumiyuki in 1507. This incident is calledEishō no sakuran (永正の錯乱,Eishō delirium). This triggered a struggle for the succession of the Hosokawa clan, which was divided into the Hosokawa Sumimoto faction and theHosokawa Takakuni faction, and started a war called Ryō Hosokawa War (両細川の乱), which was won by Hosokawa Takakuni.[21]
Hosokawa Takakuni installedAshikaga Yoshiharu as the 12th shogun. Meanwhile,Hosokawa Harumoto, son of Hosokawa Sumimoto, who had lost the war, collaborated withMiyoshi Motonaga to defeat Takakuni at the Battle of Katsuragawa (桂川の戦い) in 1527 and expel him from Kyoto. The authority of theKanrei was thus destroyed, and with almost no support for Hosokawa Takakuni, he was forced to move from place to place. He gained thesengoku daimyoUragami Muramune as an ally and fought Hosokawa Harumoto in a war calledDaimotsu kuzure (大物崩れ) in 1531, but was defeated.[21]
Hosokawa Harumoto seized power, but he alienated Miyoshi Motonaga, who was his retainer but still held a strong position of power. Harumoto seduced theIkkō-shū into aIkkō-ikki against Motonaga, which resulted in Motonaga's death in 1532.[21]
Miyoshi Motonaga's son,Miyoshi Nagayoshi, fought against Hosokawa Harumoto, but chose to subordinate himself to Harumoto. As a follower of Harumoto, Miyoshi Nagayoshi defeatedKizawa Nagamasa, the most powerful member of theHatakeyama clan who served asKanrei, and in 1547 defeated the 12th shogun, Ashikaga Yoshiharu andHosokawa Ujitusna, son of Hosokawa Takakuni, in the Battle of Shari-ji (舎利寺の戦い). This further reduced the power of the Ashikaga Shogunate. Miyoshi Nagayoshi was told by a retainer of the Hosokawa family thatMiyoshi Masanaga had played a dark role in his father's death, and he petitioned his lord Hosokawa Harumoto to overthrow Masanaga, but this petition was not accepted, and, in turn, Nagayoshi was almost eliminated by Harumoto. In response, Miyoshi Nagayoshi attacked and defeated Miyoshi Masanaga, expelled Hosokawa Harumoto, Ashikaga Yoshiharu, the 12th shogun, and his son Ashikaga Yoshiteru from Kyoto, and established control over the Kyoto area in 1549. After that, he fought several times against Ashikaga Yoshiteru, who became the 13th shogun, for control of the Kyoto area. However, one by one, his sons died in war or from disease, and theMiyoshi clan began to decline rapidly.[22]
By the time of the 13th shogun,Ashikaga Yoshiteru, the shogun already had few direct fiefs and direct military forces, and his sphere of influence was limited to a few lands around Kyoto, losing both economic and military power. As a result, Ashikaga Yoshiteru was often chased out of Kyoto by thesengoku daimyo Miyoshi Nagayoshi and his forces, and was finally killed in an attack by the forces ofMiyoshi Yoshitsugu andMatsunaga Hisahide. Ashikaga Yoshiteru was known as a great swordsman and was a student ofTsukahara Bokuden, who was known as one of the strongest swordsmen.[23] According toYagyū Munenori, a swordsmanship instructor in the Tokugawa Shogunate, Ashikaga Yoshiteru was one of the five best swordsmen of his time. According to several historical books, includingLuís Fróis'Historia de Japam, he fought hard withnaginata andtachi during a raid, defeating many of his enemies, but eventually ran out of strength and was killed.[24]
The trio (三好三人衆) ofMiyoshi Nagayasu,Miyoshi Soui, andIwanari Tomomichi supported the young head of the clan, Miyoshi Yoshitsugu, in leading the Miyoshi clan. However, after the assassination of the 13th Shogun, the trio fell out with another Miyoshi follower, Matsunaga Hisashige, over the 14th Shogun,Ashikaga Yoshihide, and war broke out. The latter three also came into conflict with Yoshitsugu. The Miyoshi regime virtually collapsed whenOda Nobunaga entered Kyoto in 1568. Miyoshi Yoshitugu and Matsunaga Hisahide submitted to Nobunaga, but were later killed by Nobunaga's forces. The trio was weakened and the Miyoshi clan declined.[25]
Mōri Motonari was asengoku daimyo who pacified theChūgoku region and is famous for his parable of the "Three Arrows", which explains the importance of clan unity. In his first battle, theBattle of Arita-Nakaide in 1517, he defeated the overwhelming majority of the Aki-Takeda clan with a small force, which later became known as the "Battle of Okehazama in the West" as a battle in which a small force defeated a large army. Motonari became head of theMōri clan in 1523 at the age of 27. TheAmago andŌuchi clans were sharing power in the Chūgoku region at the time, and he switched the Mōri clan's allegiance from the Amago to the Ōuchi clan in 1525. Motonari destroyed the Takahashi clan by 1535 and ruledAki province,Iwami province, andBingo province, and destroyed the Aki-Takeda clan at theSiege of Koriyama in 1541. Motonaga adopted his sons into theKikkawa clan andKobayakawa clans to expand the power of the Mōri clan, and the three clans cooperated with each other. In 1554, Motonaga became independent of the Ōuchi clan, and after inciting the Ōuchi clan to internal divisions through political maneuvering, he defeatedSue Harukata, who had been in control of the Ōuchi clan, at theBattle of Itsukushima in 1555, and defeatedŌuchi Yoshinaga in 1557, destroying the Ōuchi clan and pacifying Nagato and Suou provinces.Motonari destroyed the Amago clan at theSiege of Gassantoda Castle in 1567, and then pacifiedIzumo,Oki, andHōki provinces, thus pacifying the Chūgoku region, and later extended his power to parts ofShikoku. He died in 1571 at the age of 75.[26][27]
In 1546,Hōjō Ujiyasu defeatedUesugi Tomosada at theSiege of Kawagoe Castle, and theLater Hōjō clan established its power in theKantō region.[2]
Uesugi Kenshin (Nagao Kagetora) was asengoku daimyo based inEchigo Province who fought varioussengoku daimyo and increased his power through aggressive invasions. After unifying Echigo in 1551, he invaded the Kantō region several times from 1552 to 1569 and fought against Hōjō Ujiyasu. He also invaded the territory ofTakeda Shingen, who ruledKai andShinano Provinces from 1553 to 1573, and fought in theBattle of Kawanakajima five times between 1553 and 1564. In 1559, Kenshin had an audience withEmperor Ōgimachi and the 13th Shogun, Ashikaga Yoshiteru. WhenImagawa Yoshimoto was killed byOda Nobunaga's forces at theBattle of Okehazama in 1560, theAlliance Kai-Sagami-Suruga formed in 1554 between Takeda Shingen in Kai, Hojo Ujiyasu inSagami, and Imagawa Yoshimoto inSuruga was broken. Kenshin used this as an opportunity to seize Hojo Ujiyasu's territories one by one, and cornered the Later Hōjō clan at theSiege of Odawara in 1561, but was unable to defeat them. On his return from the Siege of Odawara, he performed a ceremony at theTsurugaoka Hachimangū and assumed the position ofkantō kanrei. Kenshin made peace with Hōjō Ujiyasu, who ceded part of his territory to him in 1569, and made Takeda Shingen a common enemy of Kenshin and Ujiyasu, but Shingen died of illness in 1573. After Takeda Shingen's death, he fell out with Oda Nobunaga and destroyed the Noto Hatakeyama clan, which was close to Nobunaga, at theSiege of Nanao in 1577, pacifyingNoto Province. He then defeated Oda Nobunaga's forces at theBattle of Tedorigawa. However, he died of a cerebral hemorrhage in 1578 at the young age of 49.[28][29]
When the Portuguese brought thematchlock gun to Japan in 1543, it was mass-produced in Japan, and a gun called thetanegashima began to be used in wars. With the introduction of guns, a standing army ofashigaru (足軽, foot soldier) became essential to victory in war, making it impossible for small local lords to remain independent, and lands were consolidated undersengoku daimyo with vast territories, and battles betweensengoku daimyo became more intense.[18]
During this period, the organized use of large numbers oftanegashima (guns) was essential to winning the war. In order for thedaimyo to win the war, they had to secure a large number of gunsmiths and arms dealers, import large quantities oflead, the raw material for bullets, andnitre, the raw material for gunpowder, conduct routine marksmanship training, and secure large quantities of materials for building war positions. It was Oda Nobunaga who did this most successfully.[30] He built Azuchi Castle at a strategic distribution point, brought several gunsmithing centers under his control, and established friendly relations with the Portuguese and merchants inSakai, which had become an international port. He examined the rice yields of the lands under his control and did not allow his retainers to take private ownership of the lands, leaving the management of the lands to his retainers. This made it possible to efficiently change territories according to the performance of the vassals, thus eliminating land disputes. In addition, he made it possible to form a standing army by assigning military service to each region according to rice production. He encouraged the economic activities of the common people. In this way, he rapidly increased his power.[31][32][33]
In and around theKinai, the most politically important region in Japan, Oda Nobunaga allied withTokugawa Ieyasu to increase his power. Nobunaga defeatedImagawa Yoshimoto at theBattle of Okehazama in 1560 and moved to Kyoto in 1568 to support the 15th shogun,Ashikaga Yoshiaki. Nobunaga defeatedMiyoshi Yoshitsugu in 1569, laidsiege to Mount Hiei in 1571, defeatedAsakura Yoshikage at theSiege of Ichijōdani Castle in 1573, defeatedAsai Nagamasa at theSiege of Odani Castle in the same year, and expelled Ashikaga Yoshiaki from Kyoto in 1573, thus destroying the Ashikaga shogunate. He overpowered theNagashima ikko ikki in 1574, defeatedTakeda Katsuyori at theBattle of Nagashino in 1575, and defeatedIshiyama Hongan-ji in theIshiyama Hongan-ji War in 1580. However, he was betrayed by his vassalAkechi Mitsuhide, who drove him to suicide in theHonnō-ji Incident of 1582.[2][34]
At the same time, theMōri clan overthrew theOuchi clan in theChūgoku region, and theShimazu andOtomo clans became major powers inKyushu. In this way, regional unification was promoted.[2]
Though a peasant by birth,Toyotomi Hideyoshi had risen through the ranks ofashigaru (足軽, foot soldier), samurai, andsengoku daimyo under Nobunaga to become the most capable general of them all. When he learned that his lord Nobunaga had been effectively killed by Akechi Mitsuhide, he immediately made peace with the Mōri clan, who were in the midst of a battle, and turned his army back faster than anyone could have predicted, defeating Akechi Mitsuhide at theBattle of Yamazaki. Hideyoshi avenged his lord's death only 11 days after Nobunaga's death. The men who had been Nobunaga's chief vassals discussed future policy at theKiyosu Conference, and Hideyoshi began his path to becoming Nobunaga's successor. In 1582, Hideyoshi defeatedShibata Katsuie andOda Nobutaka, who had been enemies over Nobunaga's succession, at theBattle of Shizugatake, and in 1583 he began construction ofOsaka Castle. In 1584, he fought bitterly against the allied forces of Tokugawa Ieyasu andOda Nobuo at theBattle of Komaki and Nagakute, but was able to make a truce with Nobuo by making peace with him. In 1585, he defeatedChōsokabe Motochika in anInvasion of Shikoku and pacifiedShikoku. In 1586, he becameKampaku (関白, Imperial Regent) andDaijō-daijin (太政大臣, Chancellor of the Realm) for the first time in history, although he was not a native-born aristocrat. In 1586, he also succeeded in getting Ieyasu to swear allegiance to him. In 1587, he defeated theShimazu clan in aKyūshū campaign and pacifiedKyūshū. In 1590, he defeated the Later Hōjō clan in theSiege of Odawara and pacified the Kantō region. In the same year, he forced the clans of theTōhoku region to swear allegiance to him and finally achieved the unification of Japan.[35][36]
Date Masamune was a one-eyed warlord, a famoussengoku daimyo who is often said to have had the potential to unite the country if only he had been born 20 years earlier.[37][38] He became the head of theDate clan in 1584, two years after the death of Oda Nobunaga, destroyed theNihonmatsu clan and other clans, and then in 1589, at theBattle of Suriagehara, defeated theAshina clan to conquer theAizu province, and continued to expand his territory to conquer most of theTōhoku region. On the other hand, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who had only the Kantō and Tōhoku regions left to unify Japan, enacted a law called theSōbujirei (惣無事令) in 1587, which prohibitedsengoku daimyo from waging war against each other, and Masamune's conquest of the Tōhoku region was a serious violation of this law. After destroying the Later Hōjō clan at the Siege of Odawara, Hideyoshi wanted to destroy the Date clan and othersengoku daimyo in the Tōhoku region who were reluctant to show their deference. Hideyoshi had his subordinateMaeda Toshiie question Masamune, who had arrived late to give the order to participate in the Siege of Odawara, but after hearing Masamune's bold attitude, he decided to meet with Masamune. Masamune showed his reverence by appearing before Hideyoshi in a pure white death robe, ready to be executed. Hideyoshi placed his staff on Masamune's neck and said, "If you had come a little later, you would have been beheaded," and Masamune pledged his reverence to Hideyoshi. He did not lose his life, only some of his territory was confiscated. He was later interrogated by Hideyoshi on suspicion of inciting a peasant uprising and participating in the rebellion ofToyotomi Hidetsugu, but he defended himself with his usual courage and dignity and was not punished.[37][39]
He was on the side of Tokugawa Ieyasu at theBattle of Sekigahara, and as the first lord of theSendai domain during theEdo period, he developedSendai and laid the foundations of the city as the center of the present-day Tōhoku region. In 1613, he sentHasekura Tsunenaga as an ambassador to Europe, where he was granted an audience with thePope Paul V.[37][39]
| Time | Event |
|---|---|
| 1454 | Beginning ofKyōtoku incident |
| 1467 | Beginning ofŌnin War |
| 1477 | End of Ōnin War. The effective independence of theIgaikki is noted |
| 1482 | End of Kyōtoku incident. |
| 1485 | The Yamashiro uprising results in the formation of theYamashiroikki |
| 1487 | Battle of Magari: Rokkaku Takayori, assisted by ninjas from the Iga andKōkaikkis, defeatsAshikaga Yoshihisa |
| 1488 | TheKaga Rebellion establishes theKagaikki |
| 1493 | Hosokawa Masamoto succeeds in the Coup of Meio (Meio incident) |
| Hōjō Sōun seizesIzu Province | |
| The Ashikaga shogunate destroys the Yamashiroikki | |
| 1507 | Beginning of the Ryo Hosokawa War (the succession dispute in the Hosokawa family) |
| 1520 | Hosokawa Takakuni defeatsHosokawa Sumimoto |
| 1523 | Ming China suspends all diplomatic and trade relations withJapan due to the conflict |
| 1531 | Hosokawa Harumoto defeats Hosokawa Takakuni |
| 1535 | Battle of Idano The forces of theMatsudaira defeat the rebel Masatoyo |
| 1543 | ThePortuguese lands onTanegashima, becoming the first Europeans to arrive in Japan, and introduce thearquebus into Japanese warfare |
| 1546 | Siege of Kawagoe Castle:Hojo Ujiyasu defeats theUesugi clan and becomes ruler of theKanto Region |
| 1549 | Miyoshi Nagayoshi betrays Hosokawa Harumoto |
| Japan officially ends its recognition of China'sregional hegemony and cancels any furthertribute missions | |
| 1551 | Tainei-ji incident:Sue Harukata betraysŌuchi Yoshitaka, taking control of western Honshu |
| 1554 | The tripartite pact amongTakeda,Hōjō andImagawa is signed |
| 1555 | Battle of Itsukushima:Mōri Motonari defeats Sue Harukata and goes on to supplant the Ōuchi as the foremostdaimyo of western Honshu |
| 1560 | Battle of Okehazama: The outnumberedOda Nobunaga defeats and killsImagawa Yoshimoto in a surprise attack |
| 1561 | Fourth Battle of Kawanakajima: The legendary battle betweenTakeda Shingen andUesugi Kenshin |
| Portuguese vessels bombard Moji at the request ofOtomo Sorin, who fails to take itin a siege. | |
| 1562 | Omura Sumitada converted to Christianity, becoming the first Japanese lord to do so. |
| 1565 | Portuguese and Japanese vessels belonging to the Matsura clan clash at theBattle of Fukuda Bay. |
| 1568 | Oda Nobunaga marches towardKyoto forcingMatsunaga Hisahide to relinquish control of the city |
| 1570 | Battle of Anegawa and the beginning of theIshiyama Hongan-ji War |
| 1571 | Nagasaki is established as a trade port for Portuguese merchants, with authorization ofdaimyoŌmura Sumitada |
| 1573 | The end of theAshikaga shogunate |
| 1574 | TheRokkaku clan andKōkaikki surrender to Oda Nobunaga |
| 1575 | Battle of Nagashino:Oda Nobunaga andTokugawa Ieyasu decisively defeat theTakeda clan cavalry with innovative arquebus tactics |
| 1577 | Battle of Tedorigawa: The epic battle betweenUesugi Kenshin againstOda Nobunaga |
| 1580 | End of theIshiyama Hongan-ji War. Oda Nobunaga unifies central Japan under his rule |
| 1581 | TheTenshō Iga War ends with the destruction of theIgaikki. |
| 1582 | Akechi Mitsuhide assassinates Oda Nobunaga in theHonnō-ji Incident;Hashiba Hideyoshi defeats Akechi at theBattle of Yamazaki |
| 1583 | Chosokabe Motochika extends his power to all ofShikoku island |
| 1584 | Shimazu Yoshihisa succeeds in controlling the entireKyushu region |
| 1585 | Invasion of Shikoku (1585):Hashiba Hideyoshi conquest of Shikoku |
| Hashiba Hideyoshi is granted the title ofKampaku, establishing his predominant authority; he is granted the surnameToyotomi a year after. | |
| 1587 | Kyūshū campaign: Toyotomi Hideyoshi defeats theShimazu clan |
| Toyotomi Hideyoshi announces the first anti-Christian sentiment | |
| 1590 | Siege of Odawara: Toyotomi Hideyoshi defeats theHōjō clan |
| Toyotomi Hideyoshi achieves the unification of the entire country under the loyalty of the clans of Mutsu Province. | |
| 1591 | Kunohe rebellion: Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Ieyasu defeat the forces ofKunohe Masazane, unifying Japan under the rule of Toyotomi Hideyoshi |
| 1592–98 | Japanese invasions of Korea |
| 1598 | Toyotomi Hideyoshi dies |
| 1600 | Battle of Sekigahara: The Eastern Army underTokugawa Ieyasu defeats the Western Army of Toyotomi loyalists |
| 1603 | Rokugō Rebellion: Satake clan underSatake Yoshinobu takes full control of Kubota Domain |
| 1603 | Tokugawa Ieyasu unifies all of Japan under his rule and establishes theTokugawa shogunate |
| 1609 | Invasion of Ryukyu: The Ryukyu Kingdom becomes a vassal state under theSatsuma Domain of Japan |
| 1614 | Catholicism is officially banned and all missionaries are ordered to leave the country for two centuries |
| 1615 | Siege of Osaka: The last of the Toyotomi opposition to the Tokugawa shogunate is stamped out |
The upheaval resulted in the further weakening of central authority, and throughout Japan, regional lords, calleddaimyōs, rose to fill the vacuum. In the course of this power shift, well-establishedclans such as theTakeda and theImagawa, who had ruled under the authority of both the Kamakura and Muromachibakufu, were able to expand their spheres of influence. There were many, however, whose positions eroded and were eventually usurped by more capable underlings. This phenomenon of social meritocracy, in which capable subordinates rejected the status quo and forcefully overthrew an emancipated aristocracy, became known asgekokujō (下克上), which means "low conquers high".[40]
One of the earliest instances of this wasHōjō Sōun, who rose from relatively humble origins and eventually seized power inIzu Province in 1493. Building on the accomplishments of Sōun, theHōjō clan remained a major power in theKantō region until its subjugation byToyotomi Hideyoshi late in the Sengoku period. Other notable examples include the supplanting of theHosokawa clan by theMiyoshi, theToki by theSaitō, and theShiba clan by theOda clan, which was in turn replaced by its underling, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, a son of a peasant with no family name.[citation needed]
Well-organized religious groups also gained political power at this time by uniting farmers in resistance and rebellion against the rule of thedaimyōs. The monks of theBuddhistTrue Pure Land sect formed numerousIkkō-ikki, the most successful of which, inKaga Province, remained independent for nearly 100 years.[citation needed]
| Preceded by | History of Japan Sengoku period 1467–1573 (ofMuromachi Period) | Succeeded by Azuchi–Momoyama period 1573–1603 |
