^In wartime, as Madrid wasunder siege, the government moved its capital toValencia on 6 November 1936, and then toBarcelona on 31 October 1937.
^Catalan became official in Catalonia in 1932 as well asBasque in the Basque Country in 1936.
TheSpanish Republic (Spanish:República Española), commonly known as theSecond Spanish Republic (Spanish:Segunda República Española), was the form of democratic government inSpain from 1931 to 1939. The Republic was proclaimed on 14 April 1931 after the deposition ofKing Alfonso XIII. It was dissolved on 1 April 1939 after surrendering in theSpanish Civil War to theNationalists led by GeneralFrancisco Franco.
After the proclamation of the Republic,a provisional government was established until December 1931, at which time the1931 Constitution was approved. During the subsequent two years of constitutional government, known as theReformist Biennium,Manuel Azaña's executive initiated numerous reforms. In 1932religious orders were forbidden control of schools, while the government began a large-scale school-building project. A moderate agrarian reform was carried out. Home rule was granted toCatalonia, with aparliament and a president of its own.[2] Soon, Azaña lost parliamentary support and PresidentAlcalá-Zamora forced his resignation in September 1933. The subsequent1933 election was won by theSpanish Confederation of the Autonomous Right (CEDA). However the President declined to invite its leader,Gil Robles, to form a government, fearing CEDA's monarchist sympathies. Instead, he invited theRadical Republican Party'sAlejandro Lerroux to do so. In October 1934, CEDA was finally successful in forcing the acceptance of three ministries. The Socialists triggered an insurrection that they had been preparing for nine months.[3] A general strike was called by theUnión General de Trabajadores (UGT) and theSpanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE).[4]
The rebellion developed into a bloodyrevolutionary uprising, aiming to overthrow the Republican government.[5] In the occupied areas, the rebels officially declared a proletarian revolution and abolished regular money.[6] The rebellion was crushed by theSpanish Navy and theSpanish Republican Army, the latter using mainlyMoorish colonial troops fromSpanish Morocco.[7] In 1935, after a series of crises and corruption scandals, PresidentAlcalá-Zamora, who had always been hostile to the government, called for new elections, instead of inviting CEDA, the party with most seats in the parliament, to form a new government. ThePopular Front won the1936 general election with a narrow victory. The Right accelerated its preparations for a coup, which had been months in the planning.[8][9]Amidst the wave of political violence that broke out after the triumph of the Popular Front in the February 1936 elections, a group ofGuardia de Asalto and other leftist militiamenmortally shotJosé Calvo Sotelo, one of the leaders of the opposition, on 12 July 1936. This assassination convinced many military officers to back the planned coup. Three days later (17 July), the revolt began with an army uprising inSpanish Morocco, followed by military takeovers in many cities in Spain. Military rebels intended to seize power immediately, but they were met with serious resistance as most of the main cities remained loyal to the Republic. An estimated total of half a million people would die in the war that followed.
During the Spanish Civil War, there were three Republican governments. The first was led by left-wing republicanJosé Giral (from July to September 1936); arevolution inspired mostly bylibertarian socialist,anarchist andcommunist principles broke out in its territory. The second government was led by the PSOE'sFrancisco Largo Caballero. The UGT, along with theNational Confederation of Workers (CNT), were the main forces behind thesocial revolution. The third government was led by socialistJuan Negrín, who led the Republic until the military coup ofSegismundo Casado, which ended republican resistance and ultimately led to the victory of the Nationalists. The Republican government survivedin exile and retained an embassy inMexico City until 1976. After the restoration of democracy in Spain, the government-in-exile formally dissolved the following year.[10]
On 28 January 1930, the military dictatorship of GeneralMiguel Primo de Rivera (who had been in powersince September 1923) was overthrown.[11] This led various republican factions from a wide variety of backgrounds (including conservatives, socialists and Catalan nationalists) to join forces.[12] ThePact of San Sebastián was the key to the transition from monarchy to republic. Republicans of all tendencies were committed to the Pact of San Sebastian in overthrowing the monarchy and establishing a republic. The restoration of the royal Bourbons was rejected by large sectors of the populace who vehemently opposed the King. The pact, signed by representatives of the main Republican forces, allowed a joint anti-monarchy political campaign.[13] The12 April 1931 municipal elections led to a landslide victory for republicans.[14] Two days later, the Second Republic was proclaimed, and KingAlfonso XIII went into exile.[15] The king's departure led to aprovisional government of the young republic underNiceto Alcalá-Zamora. Catholic churches and establishments in cities likeMadrid andSevilla wereset ablaze on 11 May.[16]
In June 1931 aConstituent Cortes was elected to draft a new constitution, which came into force in December.[17]
The new constitution establishedfreedom of speech andfreedom of association, extendedsuffrage to women in 1933, allowed divorce, and stripped the Spanish nobility of any special legal status. It also effectively disestablished[clarification needed] theRoman Catholic Church, but the disestablishment was somewhat reversed by the Cortes that same year. Its controversial articles 26 and 27 imposed stringent controls on Church property and barred religious orders from the ranks of educators.[18] Scholars have described the constitution as hostile to religion, with one scholar characterising it as one of the most hostile of the 20th century.[19]José Ortega y Gasset stated, "the article in which the Constitution legislates the actions of the Church seems highly improper to me."[20]Pope Pius XI condemned the Spanish government's deprivation of thecivil liberties of Catholics in theencyclicalDilectissima Nobis.[21]
The legislative branch was changed to a single chamber called theCongress of Deputies. The constitution established legal procedures for thenationalisation of public services and land, banks, and railways. The constitution provided generally accorded civil liberties and representation.[22]
The Republican Constitution also changed the country's national symbols. TheHimno de Riego was established as the national anthem, and theTricolor, with three horizontal red-yellow-purple fields, became the new flag of Spain. Under the new Constitution, all of Spain's regions had the right toautonomy.Catalonia (1932), theBasque Country (1936) andGalicia (although the Galician Statute of Autonomy could not come into effect due to the war) exercised this right, withAragon,Andalusia andValencia, engaged in negotiations with the government before the outbreak of the Civil War. The Constitution guaranteed a wide range of civil liberties, but it opposed key beliefs of the right wing, which was very rooted in rural areas, and desires of the hierarchy of the Roman Catholic Church, which was stripped of schools and public subsidies.
The 1931 Constitution was formally effective from 1931 until 1939. In the summer of 1936, after the outbreak of theSpanish Civil War, it became largely irrelevant after the authority of the Republic was superseded in many places by revolutionary socialists and anarchists on one side, and Nationalists on the other.[23]
With the new constitution approved in December 1931, once the constituent assembly had fulfilled its mandate of approving a new constitution, it should have arranged for regular parliamentary elections and adjourned. However, fearing the increasing popular opposition, the Radicals and Socialist majority postponed the regular elections, therefore prolonging their way in power for two more years. This way the republican government ofManuel Azaña initiated numerous reforms to what in their view would "modernize" the country.[2]
Landowners were expropriated. Autonomy was granted to Catalonia, with a local parliament and a president of said parliament.[2] Catholic churches in major cities were again subject to arson in 1932, and a revolutionary strike action was seen inMálaga the same year.[16] A Catholic church inZaragoza was burnt down in 1933.
In November 1932,Miguel de Unamuno, one of the most respected Spanish intellectuals, rector of the University of Salamanca, and himself a Republican, publicly raised his voice to protest. In a speech delivered on 27 November 1932, at the Madrid Ateneo, he protested: "Even the Inquisition was limited by certain legal guarantees. But now we have something worse: a police force which is grounded only on a general sense of panic and on the invention of non-existent dangers to cover up this over-stepping of the law."[24]
In 1933, all remaining religious congregations were obliged to pay taxes and banned from industry, trade and educational activities. This ban was forced with strict police severity and widespread mob violence.[25]
The majority vote in the1933 elections was won by theSpanish Confederation of the Autonomous Right (CEDA). In face of CEDA's electoral victory, presidentAlcalá-Zamora declined to invite its leader, Gil Robles, to form a government. Instead he invited theRadical Republican Party'sAlejandro Lerroux to do so. Despite receiving the most votes, CEDA was denied cabinet positions for nearly a year.[26] After a year of intense pressure, CEDA, the largest party in the congress, was finally successful in forcing the acceptance of three ministries. However the entrance of CEDA in the government, although being normal in a parliamentary democracy, was not well accepted by the left. The Socialists triggered an insurrection that they had been preparing for nine months.[3] A general strike was called by the UGT and the PSOE in the name of theAlianza Obrera. The issue was that the Left Republicans identified the Republic not with democracy or constitutional law but with a specific set of left-wing policies and politicians. Any deviation, even if democratic, was seen as treasonous.[4]
Column of Guardias Civiles during the 1934 Asturian Revolution, Brañosera
The inclusion of three CEDA ministers in the government that took office on 1 October 1934 led to a country wide revolt. A "Catalan State" was proclaimed by Catalan nationalist leaderLluis Companys, but it lasted just ten hours. Despite an attempt at a general stoppage inMadrid, other strikes did not endure. This leftAsturian strikers to fight alone.[27] Miners in Asturias occupied the capital,Oviedo, killing officials and clergymen. Fifty eight religious buildings including churches, convents and part of the university at Oviedo were burned and destroyed.[28][29] The miners proceeded to occupy several other towns, most notably the large industrial centre ofLa Felguera, and set up town assemblies, or "revolutionary committees", to govern the towns that they controlled.[28] Thirty thousand workers were mobilized for battle within ten days.[28] In the occupied areas the rebels officially declared the proletarian revolution and abolished regular money.[6] The revolutionary soviets set up by the miners attempted to impose order on the areas under their control, and the moderate socialist leadership ofRamón González Peña andBelarmino Tomás took measures to restrain violence. However, a number of captured priests, businessmen and civil guards were summarily executed by the revolutionaries inMieres andSama.[28] This rebellion lasted for two weeks until it was crushed by the army, led by GeneralEduardo López Ochoa. This operation earned López Ochoa the nickname "Butcher of Asturias".[30] Another rebellion by the autonomous government of Catalonia, led by its presidentLluís Companys, was also suppressed and was followed by mass arrests and trials.
With this rebellion against an established political legitimate authority, the Socialists showed identical repudiation of representative institutional system that anarchists had practiced.[31] The Spanish historianSalvador de Madariaga, an Azaña supporter and an exiled vocal opponent of Francisco Franco, is the author of a sharp critical reflection against the participation of the left in the revolt: "The uprising of 1934 is unforgivable. The argument that Mr Gil Robles tried to destroy the Constitution to establish fascism was, at once, hypocritical and false. With the rebellion of 1934, the Spanish left lost even the shadow of moral authority to condemn the rebellion of 1936."[32]
The suspension of the land reforms that had been attempted by the previous government, and the failure of the Asturias miners' uprising, led to a more radical turn by the parties of the left, especially in the PSOE (Socialist Party), where the moderateIndalecio Prieto lost ground toFrancisco Largo Caballero, who advocated a socialist revolution. At the same time, the involvement of the Centrist government party in theStraperlo andNombela scandals deeply weakened it, further polarising political differences between right and left. These differences became evident in the 1936 elections.
Image from the newspaper LA VOZ showing the leaders of the popular front elected in the Madrid constituency.
On 7 January 1936,new elections were called. Despite significant rivalries and disagreements, the socialists, Communists, and the Catalan-and-Madrid-based left-wing Republicans decided to work together under the namePopular Front. The Popular Front won the election on 16 February with 263 MPs against 156 right-wing MPs, grouped within a coalition of theNational Front with CEDA,Carlists, and Monarchists. The moderate centre parties virtually disappeared; between the elections, Lerroux's group fell from the 104 representatives it had in 1934 to just 9.
American historianStanley G. Payne thinks that there was major electoral fraud in the process, with widespread violation of the laws and the constitution.[33] In line with Payne's point of view, in 2017, two Spanish Scholars, Manuel Álvarez Tardío and Roberto Villa García, published the result of a research where they concluded that the 1936 elections were rigged.[34][35] This view has been criticised by Eduardo Calleja and Francisco Pérez, who question the charges of electoral irregularity and argue that the Popular Front would still have won a slight electoral majority even if all of the charges were true.[36]
In the thirty-six hours following the election, sixteen people were killed (mostly by police officers attempting to maintain order or intervene in violent clashes) and thirty-nine were seriously injured, while fifty churches and seventy right wing political centres were attacked or set ablaze.[37] The right had firmly believed, at all levels, that they would win. Almost immediately after the results were known, a group of monarchists asked Robles to lead a coup, but he refused. He did, however, ask prime ministerManuel Portela Valladares to declare a state of war before the revolutionary masses rushed into the streets. Franco also approached Valladares to propose the declaration of martial law and calling out of the army. This was not a coup attempt, but more of a "police action" akin toAsturias, as Franco believed the post-election environment could become violent and was trying to quell the perceived leftist threat.[38][9][39] Valladares resigned, even before a new government could be formed. However, the Popular Front, which had proved an effective election tool, did not translate into a Popular Front government.[40]Largo Caballero and other elements of the political left were not prepared to work with the republicans, although they did agree to support many of the proposed reforms.Manuel Azaña was called upon to form a government before the electoral process had come to an end, and he would shortly replace Zamora as president, taking advantage of a constitutional loophole: the Constitution allowed the Cortes to remove the President from office after two early dissolutions, and while the first (1933) dissolution had been partially justified because of the fulfillment of the Constitutional mission of the first legislature, the second one had been a simple bid to trigger early elections.[40]
Cortes composition, 1931-1936; size of rectangles proportionate to number of seats; parliamentary groups below 10 seats are ignored. A: Partido Agrario; AR: Acción Republicana; ASR: Agrupación al Servicio de la República; CEDA: Confederación Española de Derechas Autónomas; CT: Comunión Tradicionalista; DLR: Derecha Liberal Republicana; ERC: Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya; FRG: Federación Republicana Gallega; IC: Izquierda Republicana; LC: Lliga Regionalista de Catalunya; PCD: Partido de Centro Democrático; PCE: Partido Comunista de España; PRC: Partido Republicano Conservador; PRR: Partido Republicano Radical; PRRS: Partido Republicano Radical Socialista; PSOE: Partido Socialista Obrero Español; RE: Renovación Española; UR: Unión Republicana
The right reacted as if radical communists had taken control, despite the new cabinet's moderate composition; they were shocked by the revolutionary masses taking to the streets and the release of prisoners. Convinced that the left was no longer willing to follow the rule of law and that its vision of Spain was under threat, the right abandoned the parliamentary option and began to conspire as to how to best overthrow the republic, rather than taking control of it.[41][42]
This helped the development of the fascist-inspiredFalange Española, a National party led byJosé Antonio Primo de Rivera, the son of the former dictator,Miguel Primo de Rivera, although it only received 0.7 percent of the votes in the election. By July 1936, the Falange had a mere 40,000 members among millions of Spaniards.
The country quickly moved towards anarchy. Even the socialistIndalecio Prieto, at a party rally in Cuenca in May 1936, complained: "we have never seen so tragic a panorama or so great a collapse as in Spain at this moment. Abroad Spain is classified as insolvent. This is not the road to socialism or communism but to desperate anarchism without even the advantage of liberty."[43]
In June 1936,Miguel de Unamuno, disenchanted with the unfolding of the events, told a reporter who published his statement inEl Adelanto that PresidentManuel Azaña should commit suicide as a patriotic act.[44]
Assassinations of political leaders and beginning of the war
In response, a group ofGuardia de Asalto and other leftist militiamen led byCivil Guard Fernando Condés, after getting the approval of the minister of interior to illegally arrest a list of members of parliament, went to right-wing opposition leaderJosé Calvo Sotelo's house in the early hours of 13 July on a revenge mission. Sotelo was arrested and latershot dead in a police truck. His body was dropped at the entrance of one of the city's cemeteries. According to all later investigations, the perpetrator of the murder was a socialist gunman, Luis Cuenca, who was known as the bodyguard ofPSOE leaderIndalecio Prieto. Calvo Sotelo was one of the most prominent Spanish monarchists who, describing the government's actions asBolshevist and anarchist, had been exhorting the army to intervene, declaring that Spanish soldiers would save the country from communism if "there are no politicians capable of doing so".[45]
Prominent rightists blamed the government forCalvo Sotelo's assassination. They claimed that the authorities did not properly investigate it and promoted those involved in the murder whilst censoring those who cried out about it and shutting down the headquarters of right-wing parties and arresting right-wing party members, often on "flimsy charges".[46] The event is often considered the catalyst for the further political polarisation that ensued. The Falange and other right-wing individuals, includingJuan de la Cierva, had already been conspiring to launch a military coup d'état against the government, to be led by senior army officers.[47]
When the antifascist Castillo and the anti-socialist Calvo Sotelo were buried on the same day in the same Madrid cemetery, fighting between thePolice Assault Guard and fascist militias broke out in the surrounding streets, resulting in four more deaths.
General José Sanjurjo Sacanell, Marquis of the Rif
Thekilling of Calvo Sotelo with police involvement aroused suspicions and strong reactions among the government's opponents on the right.[48] Although the nationalist generals were already planning an uprising, the event was a catalyst and a public justification for a coup.[49]Stanley Payne claims that before these events, the idea of rebellion by army officers against the government had weakened; Mola had estimated that only 12% of officers reliably supported the coup and at one point considered fleeing the country for fear he was already compromised, and had to be convinced to remain by his co-conspirators.[50] However, thekidnapping and murder of Sotelo transformed the "limping conspiracy" into a revolt that could trigger a civil war.[51][52] The involvement of forces of public order and a lack of action against the attackers hurt public opinion of the government. No effective action was taken; Payne points to a possible veto by socialists within the government who shielded the killers who had been drawn from their ranks. The murder of a parliamentary leader by state police was unprecedented, and the belief that the state had ceased to be neutral and effective in its duties encouraged important sectors of the right to join the rebellion.[53] Within hours of learning of the murder and the reaction,Franco, who until then had not been involved in the conspiracies, changed his mind on rebellion and dispatched a message toMola to display his firm commitment.[54]
Three days later (17 July), thecoup d'état began more or less as it had been planned, with an army uprising inSpanish Morocco, which then spread to several regions of the country.
The revolt was remarkably devoid of any particular ideology.[contradictory][55] The major goal was to put an end to anarchical disorder.[dubious –discuss][55] Mola's plan for the new regime was envisioned as a "republican dictatorship", modelled afterSalazar's Portugal and as a semi-pluralist authoritarian regime rather than a totalitarian fascist dictatorship. The initial government would be an all-military "Directory", which would create a "strong and disciplined state." General Sanjurjo would be the head of this new regime, due to being widely liked and respected within the military, though his position would be a largely symbolic due to his lack of political talent. The 1931 Constitution would be suspended, replaced by a new "constituent parliament" which would be chosen by a new politically purged electorate, who would vote on the issue of republic versus monarchy. Certain liberal elements would remain, such as separation of church and state as well as freedom of religion. Agrarian issues would be solved by regional commissioners on the basis of smallholdings, but collective cultivation would be permitted in some circumstances. Legislation prior to February 1936 would be respected. Violence would be required to destroy opposition to the coup, though it seems Mola did not envision the mass atrocities and repression that would ultimately manifest during the civil war.[56][57] Of particular importance to Mola was ensuring the revolt was at its core an Army affair, one that would not be subject to special interests and that the coup would make the armed forces the basis for the new state.[58] However, the separation of church and state was forgotten once the conflict assumed the dimension of a war of religion, and military authorities increasingly deferred to the Church and to the expression of Catholic sentiment.[59] However, Mola's program was vague and only a rough sketch, and there were disagreements among coupists about their vision for Spain.[60][61]
Franco's move was intended to seize power immediately, but his army uprising met with serious resistance, and great swathes of Spain, including most of the main cities, remained loyal to the Republic of Spain. The leaders of the coup (Franco was not commander-in-chief yet) did not lose heart with the stalemate and apparent failure of the coup. Instead, they initiated a slow and determined war of attrition against the Republican government in Madrid.[62]As a result, an estimated total of half a million people would die in the war that followed; the number of casualties is actually disputed, as some have suggested that as many as a million people died. Over the years, historians kept lowering the death figures, and modern research concluded that 500,000 deaths were the correct figure.[63]
Valencian Republican soldier Victims of theParacuellos massacre committed by the Republicans. The Republicans committed many acts of torture, murder, and war crimes throughout the war known as theRed Terror (Spain).Twenty-six republicans executed by fascists who belonged toFranco's Nationalists at the beginning of theSpanish Civil War, between August and September 1936. This mass grave was placed at the small town namedEstépar, inBurgos, northern Spain. The excavation occurred in July–August 2014.International Brigadiers volunteered on the side of the Republic. The photo shows members of theXI International Brigade on aT-26 tank during theBattle of Belchite (August–September 1937).Spanish flag marking the place of exhibition of Picasso's paintingGuernica in Paris during the World Expo in 1937 (Agfacolor).
On 17 July 1936, General Franco led theSpanish Army of Africa from Morocco to attack the mainland, while another force from the north under GeneralEmilio Mola moved south from Navarre. Military units were also mobilised elsewhere to take over government institutions. Before long the professional Army of Africa had much of the south and west under the control of the rebels and by October 1936, Time Magazine declared that "façade of the Spanish Republic was crumbling".[65] Bloody purges followed in each piece of captured "Nationalist" territory in order to consolidate Franco's future regime.[62]Although both sides received foreign military aid, the help thatFascist Italy,Nazi Germany (as part of theItalian military intervention in Spain and theGerman involvement in the Spanish Civil War), and neighbouring Portugal gave the rebels was much greater and more effective than the assistance that the Republicans received from the USSR, Mexico, and volunteers of theInternational Brigades. While theAxis powers wholeheartedly assisted General Franco's military campaign, the governments of France, Britain, and other European powers pursued a policy of non-interventionism, as exemplified by the actions of theNon-Intervention Committee.[66] Imposed in the name ofneutrality, theinternational isolation of the Spanish Republic ended up favouring the interests of the futureAxis Powers.[67]
TheSiege of the Alcázar at Toledo early in the war resulted in the rebels winning after a long siege. The Republicans managed to hold out in Madrid, despite a Nationalist assault in November 1936, and frustrated subsequent offensives against the capital atJarama and Guadalajara in 1937. Soon, though, the rebels began to erode their territory, starving Madrid and making inroads into the east. The north, including the Basque country, fell in late 1937, and the Aragon front collapsed shortly afterward. Thebombing of Guernica was probably the most infamous event of the war and inspiredPicasso's painting. It was used as a testing ground for the German Luftwaffe'sCondor Legion. TheBattle of the Ebro in July–November 1938 was the final desperate attempt by the Republicans to turn the tide. When this failed and Barcelona fell to the rebels in early 1939, it was clear the war was over. The remaining Republican fronts collapsed, and Madrid fell in March 1939.
The Second Spanish Republic's economy was mostly agrarian, and many historians[attribution needed] call Spain during this time a "backward nation". Major industries of the Second Spanish Republic were located in the Basque region (due to it having Europe's best high-grade non-phosphoric ore) and Catalonia. This greatly contributed to Spain's economic hardships, as their center of industry was located on the opposite side of the country from their resource reserves, resulting in immense transportation costs due to the mountainous Spanish terrain. Compounding economic woes was Spain's low export rate and heavily domestic manufacturing industry. High levels of poverty left many Spaniards open to extremist political parties in search of a solution.[68]
^Orella Martínez, José Luis; Mizerska-Wrotkowska, Malgorzata (2015).Poland and Spain in the interwar and postwar period. Madrid: Schedas, S.l.ISBN978-8494418068.
^Madariaga – Spain (1964) p. 416 as cited inOrella Martínez, José Luis; Mizerska-Wrotkowska, Malgorzata (2015).Poland and Spain in the interwar and postwar period. Madrid: Schedas, S.l.ISBN978-8494418068.
^Calleja, Eduardo González, and Francisco Sánchez Pérez. "Revisando el revisionismo. A propósito del libro 1936. Fraude y violencia en las elecciones del Frente Popular."Historia Contemporánea 3, no. 58 (2018).
^Alvarez Tardio, Manuel. "Mobilization and political violence following the Spanish general elections of 1936".Revista de Estudios Politicos 177 (2017): 147–179.
^Jensen, Geoffrey. Franco. Potomac Books, Inc., 2005, p. 66
Brenan, Gerald (1950).The Spanish Labyrinth: an account of the social and political background of the Spanish Civil War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN0-521-04314-X.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
Cueva, Julio de la Cueva (1998). "Religious Persecution, Anticlerical Tradition and Revolution: On Atrocities against the Clergy during the Spanish Civil War".Journal of Contemporary History.33 (3). Sage Publications, Ltd.:355–369.
Preston, Paul (2012).The Spanish Holocaust: Inquisition and Extermination in Twentieth-Century Spain (1st ed.). W. W. Norton & Company.ISBN978-0393345919.
Ruiz, Julius (2015).The 'Red Terror' and the Spanish Civil War: Revolutionary Violence in Madrid. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-1107682931.
Raymond Carr, ed.The Republic and the Civil War in Spain (1971)[ISBN missing]
Raymond Carr,Spain 1808–1975 (2nd ed. 1982)[ISBN missing]
.svg)
.svg)
.svg)
