Na Gaeil · Na Gàidheil · Ny Gaeil | |
|---|---|
 Areas which were linguistically and culturally Gaelic c. 1000 (light green) and c. 1700 (medium green); areas that are Gaelic-speaking in the present day (dark green) | |
| Total population | |
| c.2.1 million (linguistic grouping) | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
| Ireland | 1,873,997 (linguistic)[1] |
| United Kingdom | 122,518 (linguistic)[2] |
| United States | 27,475 (linguistic)[3] |
| Canada | 9,000 (linguistic)[4] |
| Australia | 2,717 (linguistic)[5] |
| New Zealand | 670 (linguistic) |
| Languages | |
| Gaelic languages (Irish · Scottish Gaelic · Manx · Shelta · Beurla Reagaird) also non-GaelicEnglish andScots | |
| Religion | |
| Christianity · Irreligion (historic:Paganism) | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
| Norse-Gaels · Gaelicised Normans · Celtic Britons · Scottish Romani Travellers | |
TheGaels (/ɡeɪlz/GAYLZ;Irish:Na Gaeil[n̪ˠəˈɡeːlʲ];Scottish Gaelic:Na Gàidheil[nəˈkɛː.al];Manx:Ny Gaeil[nəˈɡeːl]) are anethnolinguistic group[6] native toIreland,Scotland and theIsle of Man.[a][10] They are associated with theGaelic languages: a branch of theCeltic languages comprisingIrish,Manx andScottish Gaelic.
Gaelic language and culture originated inIreland, extending toDál Riata in westernScotland. In antiquity, the Gaelstraded with the Roman Empire and alsoraidedRoman Britain. In the Middle Ages, Gaelic culture became dominant throughout the rest ofScotland and theIsle of Man. There was also some Gaelic settlementin Wales, as well as cultural influence throughCeltic Christianity. In theViking Age, small numbers ofVikings raided and settled in Gaelic lands, becoming theNorse-Gaels. In the 9th century, Dál Riata andPictland merged to form the GaelicKingdom of Alba. Meanwhile,Gaelic Ireland was made up ofseveral kingdoms, with aHigh King often claiming lordship over them.
In the 12th century,Anglo-Normansconquered parts of Ireland, while parts of Scotlandbecame Normanized. However, Gaelic culture remained strong throughout Ireland, theScottish Highlands andGalloway. In the early 17th century, the last Gaelic kingdoms in Ireland fell underEnglish control.James VI and I sought to subdue the Gaels and wipe out their culture;[11] first in the Scottish Highlands via repressive laws such as theStatutes of Iona, and then in Ireland bycolonizing Gaelic land with English and Scots-speaking Protestant settlers. In the following centuries Gaelic language was suppressed and mostly supplanted by English. However, it continues to be the main language in Ireland'sGaeltacht and Scotland'sOuter Hebrides. The modern descendants of the Gaels have spread throughout the rest of the British Isles, theAmericas andAustralasia.
Traditional Gaelic society was organised intoclans, each with its own territory and king (or chief), elected throughtanistry. The Irish were previouslypagans who hadmany gods,venerated their ancestors and believed in anOtherworld. Their four yearly festivals –Samhain,Imbolc,Beltane andLughnasa – continued to be celebrated into modern times. The Gaels have a strongoral tradition, traditionally maintained byshanachies.Inscription in theogham alphabet began in the 4th century. The Gaels' conversion toChristianity accompanied the introduction of writing in the Roman alphabet.Irish mythology andBrehon law were preserved and recorded by medieval Irish monasteries.[12] Gaelic monasteries were renowned centres of learning and played a key role in developingInsular art; Gaelic missionaries and scholars werehighly influential in western Europe. In the Middle Ages, most Gaels lived inroundhouses andringforts. The Gaels had their own style of dress, which became thebelted plaid andkilt. They also have distinctivemusic, dance,festivals, andsports. Gaelic culture continues to be a major component ofIrish,Scottish andManx culture.
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Throughout the centuries, Gaels and Gaelic-speakers have been known by a number of names. The most consistent of these have beenGael,Irish andScots. InLatin, the Gaels were calledScoti,[13] but this later came to mean only the Gaels ofScotland. Other terms, such asMilesian, are not as often used.[14] AnOld Norse name for the Gaels wasVestmenn (meaning "Westmen", due to inhabiting the Western fringes of Europe).[15] Informally, archetypal forenames such asTadhg orDòmhnall are sometimes used for Gaels.[16]
The word "Gaelic" is first recorded in print in theEnglish language in the 1770s,[17] replacing the earlier wordGathelik which is attested as far back as 1596.[17]Gael, defined as a "member of the Gaelic race", is first attested in print in 1810.[18] In English, the more antiquarian termGoidels came to be used by some due toEdward Lhuyd's work on the relationship betweenCeltic languages. This term was further popularised in academia byJohn Rhys; the first Professor of Celtic atOxford University; due to his workCeltic Britain (1882).[19]
These names all come from theOld Irish wordGoídel/Gaídel. InEarly Modern Irish, it was spelledGaoidheal (singular) andGaoidheil/Gaoidhil (plural).[20] In modern Irish, it is spelledGael (singular) andGaeil (plural). According to scholarJohn T. Koch, the Old Irish form of the name was borrowed from anArchaic Welsh formGuoidel, meaning "forest people", "wild men" or, later, "warriors".[20]Guoidel is recorded as a personal name in theBook of Llandaff. The root of the name is cognate at theProto-Celtic level with Old Irishfíad 'wild', andFéni, derived ultimately fromProto-Indo-European *weidh-n-jo-.[20][21] This latter word is the origin ofFianna andFenian.
In medieval Ireland, thebardic poets who were the cultural intelligentsia of the nation, limited the use ofGaoidheal specifically to those who claimed genealogical descent from the mythicalGoídel Glas.[22] Even theGaelicisedNormans who were born in Ireland, spoke Irish and sponsored Gaelic bardic poetry, such asGearóid Iarla, were referred to asGall ("foreigner") byGofraidh Fionn Ó Dálaigh, thenChief Ollam of Ireland.[22]
A common name, passed down to the modern day, is "Irish"; this existed in the English language during the 11th century in the form ofIrisce, which derived from the stem ofOld EnglishIras, "inhabitant of Ireland", fromOld Norseirar.[23] The ultimate origin of this word is thought to be the Old IrishÉriu, which is fromOld Celtic*Iveriu, likely associated with the Proto-Indo-European term*pi-wer- meaning "fertile".[23] Ériu is mentioned as a goddess in theLebor Gabála Érenn as a daughter ofErnmas of theTuatha Dé Danann. Along with her sistersBanba andFódla, she is said to have made a deal with the Milesians to name the island after her.
Theancient Greeks, in particularPtolemy in his second centuryGeographia, possibly based on earlier sources, located a group known as theIverni (Greek:Ιουερνοι) in the south-west of Ireland.[24] This group has been associated with theÉrainn of Irish tradition byT. F. O'Rahilly and others.[24] The Érainn, claiming descent from a Milesian eponymous ancestor namedAilill Érann, were the hegemonic power in Ireland before the rise of the descendants ofConn of the Hundred Battles andMug Nuadat. The Érainn included peoples such as theCorcu Loígde and Dál Riata.Ancient Roman writers, such asCaesar,Pliny andTacitus, derived fromIvernia the nameHibernia.[24] Thus the name "Hibernian" also comes from this root, although the Romans tended to call the isleScotia, and the GaelsScoti.[25] Within Ireland itself, the termÉireannach (Irish), only gained its modern political significance as a primary denominator from the 17th century onwards, as in the works ofGeoffrey Keating, where a Catholic alliance between the nativeGaoidheal andSeanghaill ("old foreigners", of Norman descent) was proposed against theNuaghail orSacsanach (the ascendant ProtestantNew English settlers).[22]
TheScots Gaels derive from the kingdom ofDál Riata, which included parts of western Scotland and northern Ireland. It has various explanations of its origins, including afoundation myth of an invasion from Ireland. Other historians believe that the Gaels colonized parts of Western Scotland over several decades and some archaeological evidence may point to a pre-existing maritime province united by the sea and isolated from the rest of Scotland by theScottish Highlands orDruim Alban, however, this is disputed.[26][27] The genetical exchange includes passage of the M222 genotype within Scotland.[28]
From the 5th to 10th centuries, early Scotland was home not only to the Gaels of Dál Riata but also thePicts, theBritons,Angles and lastly theVikings.[29] The Romans began to use the termScoti to describe the Gaels in Latin from the 4th century onward.[30][31] At the time, the Gaels were raiding the west coast of Britain, and they took part in theGreat Conspiracy; it is thus conjectured that the term means "raider, pirate". Although the Dál Riata settled in Argyll in the 6th century, the term "Scots" did not just apply to them, but to Gaels in general. Examples can be taken fromJohannes Scotus Eriugena and other figures fromHiberno-Latin culture and theSchottenkloster founded by Irish Gaels in Germanic lands.
The Gaels of northern Britain referred to themselves asAlbannaich in their own tongue and their realm as theKingdom of Alba (founded as a successor kingdom to Dál Riata and Pictland). Germanic groups tended to refer to the Gaels asScottas[31] and so when Anglo-Saxon influence grew at court withDuncan II, the LatinRex Scottorum began to be used and the realm was known as Scotland; this process and cultural shift was put into full effect underDavid I, who let the Normans come to power and furthered the Lowland-Highland divide. Germanic-speakers in Scotland spoke a language calledInglis, which they started to callScottis (Scots) in the 16th century, while they in turn began to refer to Scottish Gaelic asErse (meaning "Irish").[32]
In traditional Gaelic society, a patrilineal kinship group is referred to as aclann[33] or, in Ireland, afine.[34][35] Both in technical use signify a dynastic grouping descended from a common ancestor, much larger than a personal family, which may also consist of various kindreds andsepts. (Fine is not to be confused with the termfian, a 'band of roving men whose principal occupations were hunting and war, also a troop of professional fighting-men under a leader; in wider sense a company, number of persons; a warrior (late and rare)'[36]).
Using the Munster-basedEóganachta as an example, members of thisclann claim patrilineal descent fromÉogan Mór. It is further divided into major kindreds, such as theEóganacht Chaisil,Glendamnach,Áine, Locha Léin and Raithlind.[37][38] These kindreds themselves contain septs that have passed down asIrish Gaelic surnames, for example the Eóganacht Chaisil includes O'Callaghan, MacCarthy, O'Sullivan and others.[39][40]
The Irish Gaels can be grouped into the following major historical groups;Connachta (includingUí Néill,Clan Colla,Uí Maine, etc.),Dál gCais,Eóganachta,Érainn (includingDál Riata,Dál Fiatach, etc.),Laigin andUlaid (includingDál nAraidi). In the Highlands, the various Gaelic-originated clans tended to claim descent from one of the Irish groups, particularly those fromUlster. TheDál Riata (i.e. – MacGregor, MacDuff, MacLaren, etc.) claimed descent fromSíl Conairi, for instance.[41] Some arrivals in the High Middle Ages (i.e. – MacNeill, Buchanan, Munro, etc.) claimed to be of the Uí Néill. As part of their self-justification; taking over power from theNorse-GaelMacLeod in the Hebrides; theMacDonalds claimed to be from Clan Colla.[42][43]
For the Irish Gaels, their culture did not survive the conquests and colonisations by the English between 1534 and 1692 (seeHistory of Ireland (1536–1691),Tudor conquest of Ireland,Plantations of Ireland,Cromwellian conquest of Ireland,Williamite War in Ireland. As a result of theGaelic revival, there has been renewed interest inIrish genealogy; theIrish Government recognised GaelicChiefs of the Name since the 1940s.[44] TheFinte na hÉireann (Clans of Ireland) was founded in 1989 to gather together clan associations;[45] individual clan associations operate throughout the world and produce journals for their septs.[46] The Highland clans held out until the 18th centuryJacobite risings. During the Victorian-era, symbolic tartans, crests and badges were retroactively applied to clans. Clan associations built up over time andNa Fineachan Gàidhealach (The Highland Clans) was founded in 2013.[47]
At the turn of the 21st century, the principles ofhuman genetics andgenetic genealogy were applied to the study of populations ofIrish origin.[48][49] The two other peoples who recorded higher than 85% for R1b in a 2009 study published in the scientific journal,PLOS Biology, were theWelsh and theBasques.[50]
The development of in-depth studies of DNA sequences known asSTRs andSNPs have allowed geneticists to associate subclades with specific Gaelic kindred groupings (and their surnames), vindicating significant elements ofGaelic genealogy, as found in works such as theLeabhar na nGenealach. Examples can be taken from theUí Néill (i.e. – O'Neill, O'Donnell, Gallagher, etc.), who are associated with R-M222[51] and theDál gCais (i.e. – O'Brien, McMahon, Kennedy, etc.) who are associated with R-L226.[52] With regard to Gaelic genetic genealogy studies, these developments in subclades have aided people in finding their original clan group in the case of anon-paternity event, withFamily Tree DNA having the largest such database at present.[53]
In 2016, a study analyzingancient DNA foundBronze Age remains fromRathlin Island in Ireland to be most genetically similar to the modern indigenous populations of Ireland, Scotland and Wales, and to a lesser degree that of England. The majority of the genomes of theinsular Celts would therefore have emerged by 4,000 years ago. It was also suggested that the arrival ofproto-Celtic language, possibly ancestral toGaelic languages, may have occurred around this time.[10] Several genetic traits found at maximum or very high frequencies in the modern populations of Gaelic ancestry were also observed in the Bronze Age period. These traits include a hereditary disease known asHFE hereditary haemochromatosis,Y-DNAHaplogroup R-M269,lactase persistence andblue eyes.[10][54] Another trait very common in Gaelic populations isred hair, with 10% of Irish and at least 13% of Scots having red hair, much larger numbers being carriers of variants of theMC1R gene, and which is possibly related to an adaptation to the cloudy conditions of the regional climate.[10][55][56]
In countries where Gaels live, census records documenting population statistics exist. The following chart shows the number of speakers of theGaelic languages (Irish, Scottish Gaelic, or Manx). The question ofethnic identity is slightly more complex, but included below are those who identify as ethnicIrish,Manx orScottish. It should be taken into account that not all are of Gaelic descent, especially in the case of Scotland, due to the nature of theLowlands. It also depends on the self-reported response of the individual and so is a rough guide rather than an exact science.
The two comparatively "major" Gaelic nations in the modern era are Ireland (which had 71,968 "daily" Irish speakers and 1,873,997 people claiming "some ability of Irish", as of the2022 census)[1] and Scotland (58,552 fluent "Gaelic speakers" and 92,400 with "some Gaelic language ability" in the 2001 census).[57] Communities where the languages still are spoken natively are restricted largely to the west coast of each country and especially theHebrides islands in Scotland. However, a large proportion of the Gaelic-speaking population now lives in the cities ofGlasgow andEdinburgh in Scotland, andDublin,Cork as well as CountiesDonegal andGalway in Ireland. There are about 2,000 Scottish Gaelic speakers in Canada (Canadian Gaelic dialect), although many are elderly and concentrated inNova Scotia and more specificallyCape Breton Island.[58] According to the U.S. Census in 2000,[3] there are more than 25,000 Irish-speakers in the United States, with the majority found in urban areas with large Irish-American communities such asBoston, New York City and Chicago.
| State | Gaeilge | Ethnic Irish | Gàidhlig | Ethnic Scots | Gaelg | Ethnic Manx |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ireland | 1,873,997(2022)[1] | 3,969,319(2011) | not recorded | not recorded | not recorded | not recorded |
| United Kingdom anddependencies | 64,916(2011)[2] | 1,101,994(2011)[2][59] | 57,602(2011) | 4,446,000(2011) | 1,689(2000)[60] | 38,108(2011) |
| United States | 25,870(2000)[3] | 33,348,049(2013)[61] | 1,605(2000)[3] | 5,310,285(2013)[61] | not recorded | 6,955 |
| Canada | 7,500(2011)[4] | 4,354,155(2006)[62] | 1,500(2011)[4] | 4,719,850(2006)[62] | not recorded | 4,725 |
| Australia | 1,895(2011)[5] | 2,087,800(2011)[63] | 822(2001) | 1,876,560(2011) | not recorded | 46,000 |
| New Zealand | not recorded | 14,000(2013)[64] | 670(2006) | 12,792(2006) | not recorded | not recorded |
| Total | 1,974,178 | 44,875,317 | 62,199 | 16,318,487 | 1,689 | 95,788 |
As the Western Roman Empire began to collapse, the Irish (along with the Anglo-Saxons) were one of the peoples able to take advantage inGreat Britain from the 4th century onwards. The proto-EóganachtaUí Liatháin and theDéisi Muman ofDyfed both established colonies in today'sWales. Further to the north, the Érainn's Dál Riata colonisedArgyll (eventually foundingAlba) and there was a significant Gaelic influence inNorthumbria[65] and theMacAngus clan arose to the Pictish kingship by the 8th century. GaelicChristian missionaries were also active across theFrankish Empire. With the coming of theViking Age and their slave markets, Irish were also dispersed in this way across the realms under Viking control; as a legacy, in genetic studies,Icelanders exhibit high levels of Gaelic-derivedmDNA.[66]
Since the fall of Gaelic polities, the Gaels have made their way across parts of the world, successively under the auspices of theSpanish Empire,French Empire, and theBritish Empire. Their main destinations were Iberia, France, the West Indies, North America (what is today the United States and Canada) andOceania (Australia and New Zealand). There has also been a mass "internal migration" within Ireland and Britain from the 19th century, with Irish and Scots migrating to the English-speaking industrial cities ofLondon,Dublin,Glasgow,Liverpool,Manchester,Birmingham,Cardiff,Leeds,Edinburgh and others. Many underwent a linguistic "Anglicisation" and eventually merged with Anglo populations.
In a more narrow interpretation of the termGaelic diaspora, it could be interpreted as referring to theGaelic-speaking minority among theIrish,Scottish, andManx diaspora. However, the use of the term "diaspora" in relation to the Gaelic languages (i.e., in a narrowly linguistic rather than a more broadly cultural context) is arguably not appropriate, as it may suggest that Gaelic speakers and people interested in Gaelic necessarily have Gaelic ancestry, or that people with such ancestry naturally have an interest or fluency in their ancestral language. Research shows that this assumption is inaccurate.[67]
In their ownnational epic contained within medieval works such as theLebor Gabála Érenn, the Gaels trace the origin of their people to an eponymous ancestor namedGoídel Glas. He is described as aScythian prince (the grandson ofFénius Farsaid), who is credited with creating theGaelic languages. Goídel's mother is calledScota, described as an Egyptian princess. The Gaels are depicted as wandering from place to place for hundreds of years; they spend time inEgypt,Crete,Scythia, theCaspian Sea andGetulia, before arriving inIberia, where their king,Breogán, is said to have foundedGalicia.[14]
The Gaels are then said to have sailed to Ireland via Galicia in the form of theMilesians, sons ofMíl Espáine.[14] The Gaels fight a battle of sorcery with theTuatha Dé Danann, the gods, who inhabited Ireland at the time.Ériu, a goddess of the land, promises the Gaels that Ireland shall be theirs so long as they pay tribute to her. They agree, and their bardAmergin recites an incantation known as theSong of Amergin. The two groups agree to divide Ireland between them: the Gaels take the world above, while the Tuath Dé take the world below (i.e. theOtherworld).
There is some disagreement about whenCeltic speakers first arrived in Ireland. It is thought by some scholars to be associated with theBell Beaker people of theBronze Age, however others argue that "Celts" arrived much later at the beginning of theIron Age.[68]
During theIron Age, there was heightened activity at a number of importantroyal ceremonial sites, includingTara,Dún Ailinne,Rathcroghan andEmain Macha.[69] Each was associated with a Gaelic tribe. The most important was Tara, where the High King (also known as theKing of Tara) was inaugurated on theLia Fáil (Stone of Destiny), which stands to this day.
According to medieval Irish legend, High KingTúathal Techtmar was exiled toRoman Britain before returning to claim Tara. Based on the accounts ofTacitus, some modern historians associate him with an "Irish prince" said to have been entertained byAgricola, Governor of Britain, and speculate at Roman sponsorship.[70] His grandson,Conn Cétchathach, is the ancestor of theConnachta who would dominate the Irish Middle Ages. They gained control of what would now be named Connacht. Their close relatives theÉrainn (both groups descend fromÓengus Tuirmech Temrach) and the Ulaid would later lose out to them in Ulster, as the descendants of theThree Collas inAirgíalla andNiall Noígíallach inAilech extended their hegemony.[71]
The Gaels emerged into the clear historical record during the classical era, withogham inscriptions and quite detailed references inGreco-Roman ethnography (most notably byPtolemy). TheRoman Empire conquered most of Britain in the 1st century, but did not conquer Ireland or the far north of Britain. The Gaels hadrelations with the Roman world, mostly through trade. Roman jewellery and coins have been found at several Irish royal sites, for example.[72] Gaels, known to the Romans asScoti, also carried out raids onRoman Britain, together with thePicts. These raids increased in the 4th century, asRoman rule in Britain began to collapse.[72] This era was also marked by a Gaelic presence in Britain; in what is today Wales, theDéisi founded theKingdom of Dyfed and theUí Liatháin foundedBrycheiniog.[73] There was also some Irish settlement inCornwall.[72] To the north, theDál Riata are held to have established a territory inArgyll and theHebrides.[c]
Christianity reached Ireland during the 5th century, most famously through aRomano-British slavePatrick,[74] but also through Gaels such asDeclán,Finnian and theTwelve Apostles of Ireland. The abbot and the monk eventually took over certain cultural roles of theaos dána (not least the roles ofdruí andseanchaí) as the oral culture of the Gaels was transmitted to script by the arrival of literacy. ThusChristianity in Ireland during this early time retained elements ofGaelic culture.[74]
In the Middle Ages,Gaelic Ireland was divided into a hierarchy of territories ruled by a hierarchy of kings or chiefs. The smallest territory was thetúath (plural:túatha), which was typically the territory of a single kin-group. Severaltúatha formed amór túath (overkingdom), which was ruled by an overking. Several overkingdoms formed acóiced (province), which was ruled by a provincial king. In the early Middle Ages thetúath was the main political unit, but during the following centuries the overkings and provincial kings became ever more powerful.[75][76] By the 6th century, the division of Ireland into two spheres of influence (Leath Cuinn and Leath Moga) was largely a reality. In the south, the influence of theEóganachta based atCashel grew further, to the detriment of Érainn clans such as theCorcu Loígde andClann Conla. Through their vassals theDéisi (descended fromFiacha Suidhe and later known as theDál gCais), Munster was extended north of theRiver Shannon, laying the foundations forThomond.[77] Aside from their gains in Ulster (excluding the Érainn'sUlaid), theUí Néill's southern branch had also pushed down intoMide andBrega. By the 9th century, some of the most powerful kings were being acknowledged asHigh King of Ireland.
Some, particularly champions of Christianity, hold the 6th to 9th centuries to be aGolden Age for the Gaels. This is due to the influence which the Gaels had acrossWestern Europe as part of theirChristian missionary activities. Similar to theDesert Fathers, Gaelic monastics were known for theirasceticism.[78] Some of the most celebrated figures of this time wereColumba,Aidan,Columbanus and others.[78] Learned inGreek andLatin during an age of cultural collapse,[79] the Gaelic scholars were able to gain a presence at the court of theCarolingianFrankish Empire; perhaps the best known example isJohannes Scotus Eriugena.[80] Aside from their activities abroad,insular art flourished domestically, with artifacts such as theBook of Kells andTara Brooch surviving.Clonmacnoise,Glendalough,Clonard,Durrow andInis Cathaigh are some of the more prominent Ireland-based monasteries founded during this time.
There is some evidence in earlyIcelandic sagas such as theÍslendingabók that the Gaels may have visited theFaroe Islands andIceland before theNorse, and that Gaelic monks known aspapar (meaning father) lived there before being driven out by the incoming Norsemen.[81]
The late 8th century heralded outside involvement in Gaelic affairs, as Norsemen fromScandinavia, known as theVikings, began to raid and pillage settlements. The earliest recorded raids were onRathlin andIona in 795; these hit and run attacks continued for some time until the Norsemen began to settle in the 840s atDublin (setting up a large slave market),Limerick,Waterford and elsewhere. The Norsemen also took most of the Hebrides and theIsle of Man from the Dál Riata clans and established theKingdom of the Isles.
The monarchy ofPictland had kings of Gaelic origin, since the 7th century withBruide mac Der-Ilei, around the times of theCáin Adomnáin. However, Pictland remained a separate realm from Dál Riata, until the latter gained full hegemony during the reign ofKenneth MacAlpin from theHouse of Alpin, whereby Dál Riata and Pictland were merged to form theKingdom of Alba. This meant an acceleration of Gaelicisation in the northern part of Great Britain. TheBattle of Brunanburh in 937 defined the Anglo-SaxonKingdom of England as the hegemonic force in Great Britain, over a Gaelic-Viking alliance.[82]
After a spell when the Norsemen were driven from Dublin by LeinstermanCerball mac Muirecáin, they returned in the reign ofNiall Glúndub, heralding a second Viking period. The Dublin Norse—some of them, such asUí Ímair kingRagnall ua Ímair now partly Gaelicised as theNorse-Gaels—were a serious regional power, with territories acrossNorthumbria andYork. At the same time, the Uí Néill branches were involved in an internal power struggle for hegemony between the northern or southern branches.Donnchad Donn raidedMunster and tookCellachán Caisil of the Eóganachta hostage. The destabilisation led to the rise of the Dál gCais andBrian Bóruma. Through military might, Brian went about building a GaelicImperium under his High Kingship, even gaining the submission ofMáel Sechnaill mac Domnaill. They were involved in a series of battles against the Vikings:Tara,Glenmama andClontarf. The last of these saw Brian's death in 1014. Brian's campaign is glorified in theCogad Gáedel re Gallaib ("The War of the Gaels with the Foreigners").
The Irish Church became closer to Continental models with theSynod of Ráth Breasail and the arrival of theCistercians. There was also more trade and communication with Normanised Britain and France. Between themselves, theÓ Briain and theÓ Conchobhair attempted to build a national monarchy.
The remainder of the Middle Ages was marked by conflict between Gaels andAnglo-Normans. TheNorman invasion of Ireland took place in stages during the late 12th century. Norman mercenaries landed inLeinster in 1169 at the request ofDiarmait Mac Murchada, who sought their help in regaining his throne. By 1171 the Normans had gained control of Leinster, and KingHenry II of England, with the backing of the Papacy, established theLordship of Ireland. The Norman kings of England claimed sovereignty over this territory, leading to centuries of conflict between the Normans and the native Irish. At this time, a literary anti-Gaelic sentiment was born and developed by the likes ofGerald of Wales as part of a propaganda campaign (with aGregorian "reform" gloss) to justify taking Gaelic lands. Scotland also came under Anglo-Norman influence in the 12th century. TheDavidian Revolution saw the Normanisation of Scotland's monarchy, government and church; the founding ofburghs, which became mainly English-speaking; and the royally-sponsored immigration of Norman aristocrats.[83] This Normanisation was mainly limited to theScottish Lowlands. In Ireland, the Normans carved out their own semi-independent lordships, but many Gaelic Irish kingdoms remained outside Norman control andgallowglass warriors were brought in from the Highlands to fight for various Irish kings.
In 1315, aScottish army landed in Ireland as part of Scotland'swar against England. It was led byEdward Bruce, brother of Scottish kingRobert the Bruce. Despite his own Norman ancestry, Edward urged the Irish to ally with the Scots by invoking a shared Gaelic ancestry and culture, and most of the northern kings acknowledged him as High King of Ireland.[84] However, the campaign ended three years later with Edward's defeat and death in theBattle of Faughart.
A Gaelic Irish resurgence began in the mid-14th century: English royal control shrank to an area known asthe Pale and, outside this, many Norman lords adopted Gaelic culture, becoming culturally Gaelicised. The English government tried to prevent this through theStatutes of Kilkenny (1366), which forbade English settlers from adopting Gaelic culture, but the results were mixed and particularly in the West, some Normans became Gaelicised.
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During the 16th and 17th centuries, the Gaels were affected by the policies of theTudors and theStewarts who sought to anglicise the population and bring both Ireland and the Highlands under stronger centralised control,[85] as part of what would become theBritish Empire. In 1542,Henry VIII of England declared the Lordship of Irelanda Kingdom and himself King of Ireland. The new English, whose power lay in the Pale of Dublin, then began toconquer the island. Gaelic kings were encouraged to apply for asurrender and regrant: to surrender their lands to the king, and then have them regranted asfreeholds. Those who surrendered were also expected to follow English law and customs, speak English, and convert to the ProtestantAnglican Church. Decades of conflict followed in the reign ofElizabeth I, culminating in theNine Years' War (1594–1603). The war ended in defeat for the Irish Gaelic alliance and brought an end to the independence of the last Irish Gaelic kingdoms.
In 1603, with theUnion of the Crowns, KingJames of Scotland also became king of England and Ireland. James saw the Gaels as a barbarous and rebellious people in need of civilising,[86] and believed that Gaelic culture should be wiped out.[11] Also, while most of Britain had converted to Protestantism, most Gaels had held on to Catholicism. When the leaders of the Irish Gaelic alliancefled Ireland in 1607, their lands were confiscated. James set about colonising this land with English-speaking Protestant settlers from Britain, in what became known as thePlantation of Ulster. It was meant to establish a loyal British Protestant colony in Ireland's most rebellious region and to sever Gaelic Ulster's links with Gaelic Scotland.[86] In Scotland, James attempted to subdue the Gaelic clans and suppress their culture through laws such as theStatutes of Iona.[85] He also attempted to colonise theIsle of Lewis withsettlers from the Lowlands.
Since then, the Gaelic language has gradually diminished in most of Ireland and Scotland. The 19th century was the turning point asThe Great Hunger in Ireland, and across theIrish Sea theHighland Clearances, caused mass emigration (leading to Anglicisation, but also a largediaspora). The language was rolled back to the Gaelic strongholds of thenorth west of Scotland, the west of Ireland andCape Breton Island in Nova Scotia.
TheGaelic revival also occurred in the 19th century, with organisations such asConradh na Gaeilge andAn Comunn Gàidhealach attempting to restore the prestige of Gaelic culture and the socio-communal hegemony of the Gaelic languages. Many of the participants in theIrish Revolution of 1912–1923 were inspired by these ideals and so when a sovereign state was formed (theIrish Free State),post-colonial enthusiasm for the re-Gaelicisation of Ireland was high and promoted through public education. Results were very mixed however and theGaeltacht where native speakers lived continued to retract. In the 1960s and 70s, pressure from groups such asMisneach (supported byMáirtín Ó Cadhain), theGluaiseacht Chearta Siabhialta na Gaeltachta and others; particularly inConnemara; paved the way for the creation of development agencies such asÚdarás na Gaeltachta and state media (television and radio) in Irish.
The lastnative speaker of Manx died in the 1970s, though use of the Manx language never fully ceased. There is now a resurgent language movement and Manx is once again taught in all schools as a second language and in some as a first language.
Gaelic society was traditionally made up of kin groups known as clans, each with its own territory and headed by a male chieftain.Succession to the chieftainship or kingship was throughtanistry. When a man becamechieftain orking, a relative was elected to be his deputy or 'tanist' (tánaiste). When the chieftain or king died, his tanist would automatically succeed him. The tanist had to share the same great-grandfather as his predecessor (i.e. was of the samederbfhine) and he was elected by freemen who also shared the same great-grandfather.[87][88] Gaelic law is known as theFénechas orBrehon law. The Gaels have always had a strongoral tradition, maintained byshanachies.[89] In the ancient and medieval era, most Gaels lived inroundhouses andringforts. The Gaels had their own style of dress, which became the modernbelted plaid andkilt in Scotland. They also have their own extensiveGaelic literature, style ofmusic and dances (Irish dancing andHighland dancing), social gatherings (Feis andCeilidh), and their own sports (Gaelic games andHighland games).
TheGaelic languages are part of theCeltic languages and fall under the widerIndo-European language family. There are two main historical theories concerning the origin and development of the Gaelic languages from aProto-Celtic root: the North Atlantic-basedInsular Celtic hypothesis posits that Goidelic andBrythonic languages have a more recent common ancestor thanContinental Celtic languages, while the Q-Celtic andP-Celtic hypothesis posits that Goidelic is more closely related to theCeltiberian language, while Brythonic is closer to theGaulish language.
Estimates of the emergence of proto-Gaelic in Ireland vary widely from the introduction of agriculturec. 7,000–6,000 BC to around the first[clarification needed] few centuries BC. Little can be said with certainty, as the language now known asOld Irish—ancestral to modernIrish,Scottish Gaelic andManx—only began to be properly recorded with theChristianisation of Ireland in the 4th century, after the introduction of theRoman script. Primitive Irish does appear in a specialised written form, using a unique script known asOgham. The oldest examples of Ogham have survived in the form of memorial inscriptions or shortepitaphs on pillar-like stone monuments (seeMac Cairthinn mac Coelboth). Ogham stones are found throughout Ireland and neighbouring parts of Britain. This form of written Primitive Irish is thought to have been in use as early as 1000 BC. The script frequently encodes a name or description of the owner and surrounding region, and it is possible that the inscribed stones may have represented territorial claims.
The Gaelic languages have been in steep decline since the beginning of the 19th century, when they were majority languages of Ireland and the Scottish Highlands; today they areendangered languages.[90][91] As far back as theStatutes of Kilkenny in 1366, the English government had dissuaded use of Gaelic for political reasons.[92] TheStatutes of Iona in 1609 and theSociety in Scotland for Propagating Christian Knowledge in the Highlands (for most of its history) are also notable examples. As the old Gaelic aristocracy was displaced or assimilated, the language lost its prestige and became primarily a peasant language, rather than one of education and government. The spread of theEnglish language has resulted in a vast majority of people of Gaelic ancestry being unable to speak a Goidelic language.
During the 19th century, a number ofGaeilgeoir organisations were founded to promote a broad cultural and linguistic revival.Conradh na Gaeilge (English:the Gaelic League) was set up in 1893 and had its origins inCharles Owen O'Conor's Gaelic Union, itself a derivative of theSociety for the Preservation of the Irish Language. Similar Highland Gaelic groups existed, such asAn Comunn Gàidhealach. At this time, Irish Gaelic was widely spoken along the Western seaboard (and a few other enclaves) and the Gaelic League began defining it as the "Gaeltacht", idealised as the core of true Irish-Ireland, rather than the Anglo-dominated Dublin.[93] Although the Gaelic League itself aimed to be apolitical, this ideal was attractive to militant republicans such as theIrish Republican Brotherhood, who formulated and led the Irish Revolution at the turn of the 20th century; a key leader,Pádraig Pearse, imagined an Ireland "Not merely Free but Gaelic as well – Not merely Gaelic but Free as well." Scottish Gaelic did not undergo as extensive of a politicisation at this juncture, as nationalists there tended to focus on the Lowland mythos ofWilliam Wallace rather than theGàidhealtachd.[94]
During the 1950s, the independent Irish state developedAn Caighdeán Oifigiúil as a national standard for the Irish language (using elements from local dialects but leaning towardsConnacht Irish), with a simplified spelling. Until 1973, school children had to pass Modern Irish to achieve aLeaving Cert and studying the subject remains obligatory. There are alsoGaelscoileanna where children are taught exclusively through the medium of Irish. In theGaeltacht itself, the language has continued to be in crisis under the pressure of globalism, but there are institutions such asÚdarás na Gaeltachta and aMinister for Culture, Heritage and the Gaeltacht, as well as media outlets such asTG4 andRTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta to support it. The last native Manx Gaelic speaker died in 1974, although there are ongoing attempts at revival.[95] While theGàidhealtachd has retracted in the Highlands, Scottish Gaelic has enjoyed renewed support[96] with theGaelic Language (Scotland) Act 2005, establishing theBòrd na Gàidhlig under the devolvedScottish Government. This has seen the growth ofGaelic medium education. There are also media outlets such asBBC Alba andBBC Radio nan Gàidheal, although these have been criticised for excessive use of English and pandering to an English-speaking audience.[97]
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The traditional, or "pagan", worldview of the pre-Christian Gaels of Ireland is typically described asanimistic,[98]polytheistic,ancestor venerating and focused on thehero cult of archetypal Gaelic warriors such asCú Chulainn andFionn mac Cumhaill. The four seasonal festivals celebrated in theGaelic calendar, still observed to this day, areImbolc,Beltane,Lughnasadh andSamhain.[99] While the general worldview of the Gaelic tradition has been recovered, a major issue for academic scholars is that Gaelicculture was oral prior to the coming of Christianity and monks were the first to record the beliefs of this rival worldview as a"mythology". Unlike other religions, there is no overall "holy book" systematically setting out exact rules to follow, but various works, such as theLebor Gabála Érenn,Dindsenchas,Táin Bó Cúailnge andAcallam na Senórach, represent the metaphysical orientation ofGaelachas.
The main gods held in high regard were theTuatha Dé Danann, the superhuman beings said to have ruled Ireland before the coming of the Milesians, known in later times as theaes sídhe.[100] Among the gods were male and female deities such asThe Dagda,Lugh,Nuada,The Morrígan,Aengus,Brigid andÁine, as well as many others. Some of them were associated with specific social functions, seasonal events and personal archetypal qualities. Some physical locations of importance in Ireland related to these stories include theBrú na Bóinne,Hill of Tara andHill of Uisneach. Although thesídhe were held to intervene in worldly affairs sometimes, particularly battles and issues of sovereignty, the gods were held to reside inthe Otherworld, also known asMag Mell (Plain of Joy) orTír na nÓg (Land of the Young). This realm was variously held to be located on a set of islands or underground. The Gaels believed that certain heroic persons could gain access to this spiritual realm, as recounted in the variousechtra (adventure) andimmram (voyage) tales.
The Gaels underwentChristianisation during the 5th century and that religion,de facto, remains the predominant one to this day, althoughirreligion is fast rising.[101] At first theChristian Church had difficulty infiltrating Gaelic life: Ireland had never been part of theRoman Empire and was a decentralised tribal society, making patron-based mass conversion problematic.[74] It gradually penetrated through the remnants ofRoman Britain and is especially associated with the activities ofPatrick, aBriton who had been a slave in Ireland.[74] He tried to explain its doctrines by using elements of native folk tradition, so Gaelic culture itself was not completely cast aside and to some extent local Christianity was Gaelicised.[74] The last High King inaugurated in the pagan style wasDiarmait mac Cerbaill. The 6th–9th centuries are generally held to be the height ofGaelic Christianity, with numerous saints, scholars and works of devotional art.
This balance began to unravel during the 12th century with the polemics ofBernard of Clairvaux, who attacked various Gaelic customs (includingpolygamy[102] and hereditary clergy) as "pagan".[103] TheCatholic Church of the time, fresh from its split with theEastern Orthodox Church, was becoming more centralised and uniform throughout Europe with theGregorian Reform and military reliance on Germanic peoples at the fringes ofLatin Christendom, particularly the warlike Normans. As part of this, the Catholic Church actively participated in the Norman conquest of Gaelic Ireland, with the issuing ofLaudabiliter (claiming to gift theKing of England the title "Lord of Ireland") and in Scotlandstrongly encouraged king David whoNormanised that country. Even within orders such as theFranciscans, ethnic tensions between Norman and Gael continued throughout the later Middle Ages,[104] as well as competition for ecclesiastic posts.
During the 16th century, with the emergence ofProtestantism andTridentine Catholicism, a distinct Christiansectarianism made its way into Gaelic life, with societal effects carrying on down to this day. The Tudor state used theAnglican Church to bolster their power and enticed native elites into the project, without making much initial effort to convert the Irish Gaelic masses; meanwhile, the mass of Gaeldom (as well as the "Old English") becamestaunchly Catholic. Due to the geopolitical rivalry between Protestant Britain and Catholic France and Spain, the Catholic religion and its mostly Gaelic followers in Ireland were persecuted for a long time. In the Scottish Highlands too, the Gaels were generally slow to accept the Scottish Reformation. Efforts at persuading Highlanders in general of the value of this primarily Lowland movement were hampered by the complicated politics of the Highlands, with religious rivalries and clan antagonism becoming entwined (a prominent example was the intense rivalry, even hatred, between the generallyPresbyterian Campbells and the generallyCatholic MacDonalds), but most Highlanders later converted toPresbyterianism in the 19th century during the breakdown of the clan system. In a few remote areas, however, Catholicism was kept alive and even rejuvenated to some extent by Irish Franciscan missionaries,[citation needed] but in most of the Highlands it was replaced by Presbyterianism.
The adoption of theFree Church of Scotland (1843–1900) in the Highlands following theDisruption of 1843 was a reassertion of Gaelic identity in opposition to forces of improvement and clearance.[105][106][107]
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