Shaktism involves a galaxy of goddesses, all being regarded as different aspects, manifestations, or personifications of the divine feminine energy calledShakti. It includes various modes of worship, ranging from those focused on the most worshippedDurga, to graciousParvati, and the fierceKali. After thedecline of Buddhism in India, variousHindu andBuddhist goddesses were combined to form theMahavidya, apantheon of ten goddesses. The most common forms of theMahadevi worshipped in Shaktism include: Durga, Kali,Saraswati,Lakshmi, Parvati, andTripura Sundari. Also worshipped are the variousGramadevatas across the Indian villages.
Shaktism also encompasses varioustantric sub-traditions, including Vidyapitha andKulamārga. Shaktism emphasizes that intense love of the deity is more important than simple obedience, thus showing an influence of theVaishnavaite idea of passionate relationship betweenRadha andKrishna as an idealbhava. Similarly, Shaktism influencedVaishnavism andShaivism. The goddess is considered the consort and energy (shakti) of the godsVishnu andShiva; they have their individual shaktis,Vaishnavi for Vishnu andMaheshvari for Shiva, and consorts Lakshmi andSati/Parvati. An adherent of Shaktism is called Shakta. In 2020, the World Religion Database (WRD) estimated that Shaktism is thethird largest Hindu sect, constituting about 305 million Hindus.[1]
Among the earliest evidence of reverence for the female aspect of the deity in Hinduism is this passage in chapter 10.125 of theRig Veda, also called theDevi Suktam hymn:[4][5]
I am the Queen, the gatherer-up of treasures, most thoughtful, first of those who merit worship.Thus Gods have established me in many places with many homes to enter and abide in.Through me alone all eat the food that feeds them, – each man who sees, breathes, hears the word outspoken.They know it not, yet I reside in the essence of the Universe. Hear, one and all, the truth as I declare it.I, verily, myself announce and utter the word that Gods and men alike shall welcome.I make the man I love exceeding mighty, make him nourished, a sage, and one who knowsBrahman.I bend the bow for Rudra [Shiva], that his arrow may strike, and slay the hater of devotion.I rouse and order battle for the people, I created Earth and Heaven and reside as their Inner Controller.On the world's summit I bring forth sky the Father: my home is in the waters, in the ocean as Mother.Thence I pervade all existing creatures, as their Inner Supreme Self, and manifest them with my body.I created all worlds at my will, without any higher being, and permeate and dwell within them.
The eternal and infinite consciousness is I, it is my greatness dwelling in everything.
The Vedic literature reveres various goddesses, but far less frequently than the godsIndra,Agni andSoma. Yet, they are declared equivalent aspects of the neutral Brahman, ofPrajapati andPurusha.[citation needed] The goddesses often mentioned in the Vedic layers of text include the Ushas (dawn),Vāc (speech, wisdom), Sarasvati (as river), Prithivi (earth), Nirriti (annihilator), Shraddha (faith, confidence).[7] Goddesses such as Uma appear in theUpanishads as another aspect of divine and the knower of ultimate knowledge (Brahman), such as in section 3 and 4 of the ancientKena Upanishad.[8][9]
Hymns to goddesses are in the ancient Hindu epicMahabharata, particularly in theHarivamsa section, which was a late addition (100 to 300 CE) to the work.[10] The archaeological and textual evidence implies, states Thomas Coburn, that the goddess had become as prominent as God in Hindu tradition by about the third or fourth century.[11] The literature on Shakti theology grew in ancient India, climaxing in one of the most important texts of Shaktism called theDevi Mahatmya. This text, states C. Mackenzie Brown – a professor of religion, is both a culmination of centuries of Indian ideas about the divine woman, as well as a foundation for the literature and spirituality focussed on the female transcendence in centuries that followed.[10] TheDevi Mahatmya is considered in Shaktism to be as important as theBhagavad Gita.[12] TheDevi-Mahatmya is not the earliest literary fragment attesting to the existence of devotion to a goddess figure, statesThomas B. Coburn – a professor of religious studies, but "it is surely the earliest in which the object of worship is conceptualized as goddess, with a capital G".[13]
[T]he central conception of Hindu philosophy is of the Absolute; that is the background of the universe. This Absolute Being, of whom we can predicate nothing, has Itspowers spoken of asShe — that is, the real personal God in India is She.
Shaktas conceive the goddess as the supreme, ultimate, eternal reality of all existence, or same as the Brahman concept of Hinduism. She is considered to be simultaneously the source of all creation, its embodiment and the energy that animates and governs it, and that into which everything will ultimately dissolve.[16][7]Mahadevi said in Devi Upanishad, verse 2, "I am essentially Brahman".[17][18][19][20]According to V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar – a professor of Indian history, in Shaktism theology "Brahman is static Shakti and Shakti is dynamic Brahman."[21]
Shaktism views the Devi as the source, essence, and substance of everything in creation.[7] Its texts such as theDevi-Bhagavata Purana states:
I am Manifest Divinity, Unmanifest Divinity, and Transcendent Divinity. I am Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, as well as Saraswati, Lakshmi and Parvati. I am the Sun and I am the Stars, and I am also the Moon. I am all animals and birds, and I am the outcaste as well, and the thief. I am the low person of dreadful deeds, and the great person of excellent deeds. I am Female, I am Male in the form of Shiva.[a]
Shaktism's focus on the Divine Female does not imply a rejection of the male. It rejects masculine-feminine, male-female, soul-body, transcendent-immanent dualism, considering nature as divine. Devi is considered to be the cosmos itself – she is the embodiment of energy, matter and soul, the motivating force behind all action and existence in the material universe.[23] Yet in Shaktism, states C. MacKenzie Brown, the cultural concepts of masculine and the feminine as they exist among practitioners of Shaktism are aspects of the divine, transcendent reality.[24] In Hindu iconography, the cosmic dynamic of male-female or masculine-feminine interdependence and equivalence, is expressed in the half-Shakti, half-Shiva deity known asArdhanari.[25]
In Shakta theology, the female and male are interdependent realities, represented withArdhanarishvara icon. Left: A 5th century art work representing this idea at theElephanta Caves; Right: a painting of Ardhanarishvara.
The philosophical premise in many Shakta texts, states professor of Religious Studies June McDaniel, is syncretism ofSamkhya andAdvaita Vedanta schools ofHindu philosophy, calledShaktadavaitavada (literally, the path of nondualistic Shakti).[26]
The Hindu monkSwami Vivekananda, remarked thus; about being an actual Shakti worshipper: "Do you know who is the real "Shakti-worshipper"? It is he who knows that God is the omnipresent force in the universe and sees in women the manifestation of that Force."[27] Shakta-universalistSri Ramakrishna, one of the most influential figures of theHindu reform movements, believed that all Hindu goddesses are manifestations of the samemother goddess.[28] The 18th-century Shaktabhakti poems and songs were composed by two Bengal court poets,Bharatchandra Ray andRamprasad Sen,[28] and the Tamil collectionAbhirami Anthadhi was composed by Abhirami Bhattar.[29]
The seventh book of theSrimad Devi-Bhagavatam presents the theology of Shaktism.[42] This book is calledDevi Gita, or the "Song of the Goddess".[42][43] The goddess explains she is the Brahman that created the world, asserting the Advaita premise that spiritual liberation occurs when one fully comprehends the identity of one's soul and the Brahman.[42][44] This knowledge, asserts the goddess, comes from detaching self from the world and meditating on one's own soul.[42][45]
TheDevi Gita, such as theBhagavad Gita, is a condensed philosophical treatise.[46] It presents the divine female as a powerful and compassionate creator, pervader and protector of the universe.[47] She is presented in the opening chapter of theDevi Gita as the benign and beautiful world-mother, calledBhuvaneshvari (literally, ruler of the universe).[48][46] Thereafter, the text presents its theological and philosophical teachings.[47]
The soul and the Goddess
My sacred syllable ह्रीम्] transcends,[b] the distinction of name and named, beyond all dualities. It is whole, infinitebeing, consciousness and bliss. One should meditate on that reality, within the flaming light of consciousness. Fixing the mind upon me, as the Goddess transcending all space and time, One quickly merges with me by realizing, the oneness of the soul and Brahman.
—Devi Gita, Transl: Lynn Foulston, Stuart Abbott Devibhagavata Purana, Book 7[51]
TheDevi Gita describes the Devi (or goddess) as "universal, cosmic energy" resident within each individual. It thus weaves in the terminology ofSamkhya school ofHindu philosophy.[47] The text is suffused withAdvaita Vedanta ideas, wherein nonduality is emphasized, all dualities are declared as incorrect, and interconnected oneness of all living beings' souls with Brahman is held as the liberating knowledge.[52][53][54] However, adds Tracy Pintchman – a professor of Religious Studies and Hinduism,Devi Gita incorporates Tantric ideas giving the Devi a form and motherly character rather than the gender-neutral concept of Adi Shankara's Advaita Vedanta.[55]
Shaktism is a goddess-centric tradition of Hinduism,[56] involving many goddesses, all being regarded as various aspects, manifestations, or personifications of the same supreme goddessShakti.[57][58] Shaktas approach the Devi in many forms; however, they are all considered to be but diverse aspects of the one supreme goddess.[59][60] The primary Devi form worshiped by a Shakta devotee is his or herishta-devi, that is a personally selected Devi.[61] The selection of this deity can depend on many factors such as family tradition, regional practice, guru lineage, and personal resonance.[62]
A 9th-century Durga Shakti idol, victorious over demon Mahishasura, at the Shiva temple,Prambanan, Indonesia[63]
Some forms of the goddess are widely known in the Hindu world.[64] The common goddesses of Shaktism, popular in the Hindu thought at least by about mid 1st-millennium CE, include Parvati, Durga, Kali,Yogamaya, Lakshmi, Saraswati,Gayatri,Radha, andSita.[65][7] In the Eastern part of India, after thedecline of Buddhism in India, variousHindu andBuddhist goddesses were combined to form theMahavidya, apantheon of ten goddesses.[66]
Other major goddess groups include theSapta-Matrika ("Seven Mothers"), "who are the energies of different major Gods, and described as assisting the great Shakta Devi in her fight with demons", and the 64Yoginis. The eight forms of the goddess Lakshmi,Ashtalakshmi; and the nine forms of goddess Durga, theNavadurgas, which are mainly worshipped during theNavaratri festival.[69] Also worshipped regularly are the numerousGramadevatas across the Indian villages.[70]
A sage worshipsDevi, an 18th-century painting from theTantrik Devi Series, Punjab, India
Sub-traditions of Shaktism include "Tantra", which refers to techniques, practices and ritual grammar involvingmantra,yantra,nyasa,mudra and certain elements of traditionalkundalini yoga, typically practiced under the guidance of a qualifiedguru after due initiation (diksha) and oral instruction to supplement various written sources.[71][72] There has been a historic debate between Shakta theologians on whether its tantric practices are Vedic or non-Vedic.[73][39][40]
The roots of Shakta Tantrism are unclear, probably ancient and independent of the Vedic tradition of Hinduism. The interaction between Vedic and Tantric traditions trace back to at least the sixth century,[73] and the surge in Tantra tradition developments during the late medieval period, states Geoffrey Samuel, were a means to confront and cope with Islamic invasions and political instability in and after the 14th century CE.[74]
Notable Shaktatantras areSaradatilaka Tantra of Lakshmanadesika (11th century),Kali Tantra (c. 15th century),Yogini Tantra, Sarvanandanatha'sSarvolassa Tantra, Brahmananda Giri'sSaktananda Tarangini withTararahasya and Purnananda Giri'sSyamarahasya withSritattvacintamani (16th century), Krishananda Agamavagisa'sTantrasara and Raghunatna Tarkavagisa BhattacaryaAgamatattvavilasa (17th century), as well as works of Bhaskaracharya (18th century).[75]
TheKulamārga preserves some of the distinctive features of theKāpālika tradition, from which it is derived.[77] It is subdivided into four subcategories of texts based on the goddesses Kuleśvarī, Kubjikā, Kālī and Tripurasundarī respectively.[78] TheTrika texts are closely related to the Kuleśvarī texts and can be considered as part of the Kulamārga.[79]
A modern depiction of the Divine Mother as the supreme divine ultimate reality encompassing all divinities.
Shaktism encompasses a nearly endless variety of beliefs and practices – from animism to philosophical speculation of the highest order – that seek to access the Shakti (Divine Energy or Power) that is believed to be the Devi's nature and form.[80] Its two largest and most visible schools are theSrikula (family ofTripura Sundari), strongest inSouth India, and theKalikula (family ofKali), which prevails in northern and eastern India.[80]
TheSrikula (family ofSri) tradition (sampradaya) focuses worship on Devi in the form of the goddessLalita-Tripura Sundari. Rooted in first-millennium. Srikula became a force in South India no later than the seventh century, and is today the prevalent form of Shaktism practiced in South Indian regions such asKerala,Tamil Nadu and Tamil areas ofSri Lanka.[81]
Sri Lalita-Tripurasundari enthroned with her left foot upon theSri Chakra, holding her traditional symbols, the sugarcane bow, flower arrows, noose and goad
The Srikula's best-known school isSrividya, "one of Shakta Tantrism's most influential and theologically sophisticated movements." Its central symbol, theSri Chakra, is probably the most famous visual image in all of Hindu Tantric tradition. Its literature and practice is perhaps more systematic than that of any other Shakta sect.[82]
Srividya largely views the goddess as "benign [saumya] and beautiful [saundarya]" (in contrast to Kalikula's focus on "terrifying [ugra] and horrifying [ghora]" Goddess forms such as Kali or Durga). In Srikula practice, moreover, every aspect of the goddess – whether malignant or gentle – is identified with Lalita.[83]
The Sri Chakra, also known as the Shri Yantra, is a mystical diagram used in Shaktism.
Srikula adepts most often worship Lalita using the abstractSri Chakrayantra, which is regarded as her subtle form. The Sri Chakra can be visually rendered either as a two-dimensional diagram (whether drawn temporarily as part of the worship ritual, or permanently engraved in metal) or in the three-dimensional, pyramidal form known as theSri Meru. It is not uncommon to find aSri Chakra orSri Meru installed in South Indian temples, because – as modern practitioners assert – "there is no disputing that this is the highest form of Devi and that some of the practice can be done openly. But what you see in the temples is not thesrichakra worship you see when it is done privately."[c]
The Srividyaparamparas can be further broadly subdivided into two streams, theKaula (avamamarga practice) and theSamaya (adakshinamarga practice). TheKaula orKaulachara, first appeared as a coherent ritual system in the 8th century in central India,[85] and its most revered theorist is the 18th-century philosopherBhaskararaya, widely considered "the best exponent of Shakta philosophy."[86]
TheSamaya orSamayacharya finds its roots in the work of the 16th-century commentator Lakshmidhara, and is "fiercely puritanical [in its] attempts to reform Tantric practice in ways that bring it in line with high-castebrahmanical norms."[87] Many Samaya practitioners explicitly deny being either Shakta or Tantric, though scholars argues that their cult remains technically both.[87] The Samaya-Kaula division marks "an old dispute within Hindu Tantrism".[87]
TheKalikula (Family ofKali) form of Shaktism is most dominant in northeastern India, and is most widely prevalent inWest Bengal,Assam,Bihar andOdisha, as well asNepal andKerala. The goddesses Kubjika, Kulesvari,Chamunda,Chandi, Shamshan Kali (goddess of the cremation ground), Dakshina Kali, and Siddheshwari are worshipped in the region of Bengal to protect against disease and smallpox as well as ill omens.Kalikula lineages focus upon the Devi as the source of wisdom (vidya) and liberation (moksha). The tantric part generally stands "in opposition to the brahmanic tradition," which they view as "overly conservative and denying the experiential part of religion."[88]
Kali as the supreme deity worshiped by Indra, Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva
The main deities of the Kalikula tradition areKali,Chandi,Bheema andDurga. Other goddesses that enjoy veneration areTara and all the otherMahavidyas,Kaumari as well as regional goddesses such asManasa, the snake goddesses,Ṣaṣṭī, the protectress of children,Śītalā, the smallpox goddess, andUmā (the Bengali name for Parvati) — all of them, again, considered aspects of the Divine Mother.[28][88]
Kali in herDakshina Kali form
InNepal devi is mainly worshipped as the goddess Bhavani. She is one of the important Hindu deities in Nepal.Two major centers of Shaktism in West Bengal areKalighat where the skull of Kali is believed to be worshipped along with her 25 forms. The kali ghat temple is located inCalcutta andTarapith inBirbhum district. In Calcutta, emphasis is on devotion (bhakti) to the goddess asKali. Where the goddess (Kali) is seen as the destroyer of evil;
She is "the loving mother who protects her children and whose fierceness guards them. She is outwardly frightening – with dark skin, pointed teeth, and a necklace of skulls – but inwardly beautiful. She can guarantee a good rebirth or great religious insight, and her worship is often communal – especially at festivals, such asKali Puja andDurga Puja. Worship may involve contemplation of the devotee's union with or love of the goddess, visualization of her form, chanting [of her]mantras, prayer before her image oryantra, and giving [of] offerings."[88]
At Tarapith, Devi's manifestation asTara ("She Who Saves") orUgratara ("Fierce Tara") is ascendant, as the goddess who gives liberation (kaivalyadayini). [...] The forms ofsadhana performed here are moreyogic andtantric than devotional, and they often involve sitting alone at the [cremation] ground, surrounded by ash and bone. There areshamanic elements associated with the Tarapith tradition, including "conquest of the Goddess, exorcism, trance, and control of spirits."[88]
The philosophical and devotional underpinning of all such ritual, however, remains a pervasive vision of the Devi as supreme, absolute divinity. As expressed by the 19th-century saintRamakrishna, one of the most influential figures in modern Bengali Shaktism:
Kali is none other than Brahman. That which is called Brahman is really Kali. She is the Primal Energy. When that Energy remains inactive, I call It Brahman, and when It creates, preserves, or destroys, I call It Shakti or Kali. What you call Brahman I call Kali. Brahman and Kali are not different. They are like fire and its power to burn: if one thinks of fire one must think of its power to burn. If one recognizes Kali one must also recognize Brahman; again, if one recognizes Brahman one must recognize Kali. Brahman and Its Power are identical. It is Brahman whom I address as Shakti or Kali.[89]
Shaktas celebrate most major Hindu festivals, as well as a huge variety of local, temple- or deity-specific observances. A few of the more important events are listed below:[90][56]
The most important Shakta festival isNavaratri (lit.'Festival of Nine Nights'), also known as "Sharad Navaratri" because it falls during the Hindu season ofSharad (September/October/November). This is the festival that worships theNavadurgas, forms ofDevi. This festival – often taken together with the following tenth day, known asDusshera orVijayadashami – celebrates the goddess Durga's victory over a series of powerful demons described in theDevi Mahatmya.[91] InBengal, the last four days of Navaratri are called Durga Puja, and mark one episode in particular: Durga's iconic slaying ofMahishasura (lit., the "Buffalo Demon").[28][92] Durga Puja also became the main religio-cultural celebration within the Bengal diaspora in the West (together with Kali andSarasvati Pujas, if a community enough big and rich).[93]
While Hindus of all denominations celebrate the autumn Navratri festival, Shaktas also celebrate two additional Navratris – one in the spring and one in the summer. The spring festival is known asVasanta Navaratri orChaitra Navatri, and celebrated in the Hindu month ofChaitra (March/April). Srividya lineages dedicate this festival to Devi's form as the goddess Tripura Sundari. The summer festival is calledAshada Navaratri, as it is held during the Hindu month ofAshadha (June/July). TheVaishno Devi temple inJammu, with Vaishno Devi considered an aspect of Durga, celebrates Navaratri.[91][94]Ashada Navaratri, on the other hand, is considered particularly auspicious for devotees of the boar-headed GoddessVarahi, one of the seven Matrikas named in theDevi Mahatmya.[95]
Vasant Panchami is dedicated to Goddess Saraswati, the goddess of arts, skills, intelligence, knowledge, and wisdom. She is the consort of Lord Brahma, the creator.
She is mainly worshipped by students in schools and colleges in India. She was one of the significant deities of Vedic India, where she was worshipped in Gurukuls in ancient times. She embodies sound and voice itself. Vasant Panchami is primarily celebrated in February.
Lakshmi Puja is a part of Durga Puja celebrations by Shaktas, where Laksmi symbolizes the goddess of abundance and autumn harvest.[96] Lakshmi's biggest festival, however, isDiwali (orDeepavali; the "Festival of Lights"), a major Hindu holiday celebrated across India and in Nepal as Tihar. In North India, Diwali marks the beginning of the traditional New Year, and is held on the night of the new moon in the Hindu month ofKartik (usually October or November). Shaktas (and many non-Shaktas) celebrate it as another Lakshmi Puja, placing small oil lamps outside their homes and praying for the goddess's blessings.[97] Diwali coincides with the celebration ofKali Puja, popular in Bengal,[28] and some Shakta traditions focus their worship on Devi as Parvati rather than Lakshmi.[98]
Jagaddhatri Puja is celebrated on the last four days of the Navaratis, following Kali Puja. It is very similar to Durga Puja in its details and observance, and is especially popular in Bengal and some other parts of Eastern India.Gauri Puja is performed on the fifth day afterGanesh Chaturthi, duringGanesha Puja in Western India, to celebrate the arrival of Gauri, Mother of Ganesha where she brings her son back home.[citation needed]
Major Shakta temple festivals areMeenakshi Kalyanam andAmbubachi Mela. TheMeenakshi Kalyanam is a part of theChithirai Thiruvizha festival inMadurai around April/May, one of the largest festivals in South India, celebrating the wedding of goddessMeenakshi (Parvati) and Shiva. The festival is one where both the Vaishnava and Shaiva communities join the celebrations, because Vishnu gives away his sister Parvati in marriage to Shiva.[99]Ambubachi Mela or Ameti is a celebration of the menstruation of the goddess, by hundreds of thousands of devotees, in a festival held in June/July (during the monsoon season) atKamakhya Temple, Guwahati, Assam. Here the Devi is worshiped in the form of ayoni-like stone, and the site is one of Shakta Pitha or pilgrimage sites in Shaktism.[100]
Shakti tradition practices animal sacrifice to revere goddesses such as Kali in many parts of India but particularly in the eastern and Himalayan states of India and Nepal. This is either an actual animal, or a vegetable or sweet dish substitute considered equivalent to the animal.[101] In many cases, Shakti devotees consider animal sacrifice distasteful, and practice alternate means of expressing devotion while respecting the views of others in their tradition.[102]
In Shakti mythology, Durga slays an evil buffalo demon (left, 18th century statue).[103] Right: A buffalo about to be sacrificed by a villager during Durga puja festival. The buffalo sacrifice practice, however, is rare in contemporary India.[104]
InNepal,West Bengal,Odisha andAssam, animal sacrifices are performed at Shakti temples, particularly to mark the legend of goddess Durga slaying the buffalo demon. This involves slaying of agoat or a malewater buffalo. Animal sacrifice is also an essential component as part of theKaulatantra school of Shaktism. This practice is rare among Hindus, outside this region.[103]
In Bengal, the animal sacrifice ritual follows the guidelines as seen in texts such asMahanirvana Tantra. This ritual includes selecting the animal, then a priest offers a prayer to the animal, then recites theGayatri Mantra in its ear before killing it.[105] Themeat of the sacrificed animal is then cooked and eaten by the Shakta devotees.[103]
In Nepal, animal sacrificeen masse occurs during the three-day-longGadhimai festival. In 2009 it was speculated that more than 250,000 animals were sacrificed during this event.[106][107]
TheRajput ofRajasthan worship their weapons and horses onNavratri, and formerly offered a sacrifice of agoat to a goddess revered as Kuldevi – a practice that continues in some places.[109][110] The ritual requires slaying of the animal with a single stroke. In the past this ritual was considered arite of passage into manhood and readiness as a warrior. The ritual is directed by a priest.[111] TheKuldevi among these Rajput communities is a warrior-pativrata guardian goddess, with local legends tracing reverence for her during Rajput-Muslim wars.[112]
Animal sacrifice of a buffalo or goat, particularly during smallpox epidemics, has been practiced in parts ofSouth India. The sacrificed animal is dedicated to a goddess, and is probably related to the myth of goddess Kali inAndhra Pradesh, but inKarnataka, the typical goddess isRenuka. According toAlf Hiltebeitel – a professor of Religions, History and Human Sciences, these ritual animal sacrifices, with some differences, mirrors goddess - related ritual animal sacrifice found inGilgamesh epic and in texts ofEgyptian, Minoan and Greek sources.[113]
In the 19th century through the early 20th century, Indian laborers were shipped by theBritish Empire into colonial mining and plantations operations in the Indian ocean and the Caribbean regions. These included a significant amount of Shakta devotees. While instances of Shakta animal sacrifice during Kali puja in theCaribbean islands were recorded between 1850s to 1920s, these were relatively uncommon when compared to other rituals such as temple prayers, community dancing and fire walking.[114]
The tantra practices are secretive, subject to speculations and criticism. Scholars variously attribute such criticism to ignorance, misunderstanding or sectarian bias on the part of some observers, as well as unscrupulous practices by some Shaktas. These are some of the reasons many Hindus question the relevance and historicity of Tantra to their tradition.[115][40] The emphasis in Shaktism that love of the deity is more important than obedience shows an influence of theVaishnavaite idea of passionate relationship betweenRadha andKrishna as an idealbhava.[116] Similarly, Shaktism influencedVaishnavism andShaivism. The goddess is considered the consort and energy (shakti) of the godsVishnu andShiva; they have their individual shaktis,Vaishnavi for Vishnu andMaheshvari for Shiva, and consortsLakshmi andSati/Parvati.[117]
"The Hindoo Goddess Kali", an illustration fromDr. Scudder's Tales for Little Readers About the Heathen, by Dr. John Scudder (London, 1849)
Beyond tantra, the Shakta sub-traditions subscribe to various philosophies, are similar in some aspects and differ in others. These traditions compare with Vaishnavism, Shaivism andSmartism as follows:
There is no census data available on demographic history or trends for Shaktism or other traditions within Hinduism.[142] Estimates vary on the relative number of adherents in Shaktism compared to other traditions of Hinduism. According to a 2010 estimate by Johnson and Grim, the Shaktism tradition is the smaller group with about 30 million or 3.2% of Hindus.[143] According to a 2020 estimate by the World Religion Database (WRD), hosted at Boston University’s Institute on Culture, Religion and World Affairs (CURA), Shaktism is thethird largest Hindu sect, constituting about 305 million Hindus.[144]
Gavin Flood states that Shaivism and Shaktism traditions are difficult to separate, as many Shaiva Hindus revere the goddess Shakti regularly.[148] The denominations of Hinduism, states Julius Lipner, are unlike those found in major religions of the world, because Hindu denominations are fuzzy with individuals revering gods and goddesseshenotheistically, with many Shaiva and Vaishnava adherents recognizing Sri (Lakshmi), Parvati, Saraswati and other aspects of the goddess Devi. Similarly, Shakta Hindus revere Shiva and goddesses such as Parvati (such as Durga,Radha,Sita and others) and Saraswati important in Shaiva and Vaishnava traditions.[149]
Shakta temples are found all over South Asia. Many towns, villages and geographic landmarks are named for various forms of the Devi.[150] Major pilgrimage sites of Shaktism are called "Shakti Peethas", literally "Seats of the Devi". These vary from 4 to 51.[151]
Somefeminists and participants inNew Age spirituality who are attracted to Goddess worship", suggest Shaktism is a "symbol of wholeness and healing, associated especially with repressed female power and sexuality."[152]
There has been a significant sharing of ideas, ritual grammar and concepts between Tantric Buddhism (Vajrayana tradition) found in Nepal and Tibet and the Tantric Shakta tradition of Hinduism.[156][157] Both movements cherish female deities.[158] According toMiranda Shaw, "the confluence of Buddhism and Shaktism is such that Tantric Buddhism could properly be called Shakta Buddhism".[159]
The BuddhistAurangabad Caves about 100 kilometers from theEllora Caves, dated to the 6th to 7th century CE, show Buddhist Matrikas (mother goddesses of Shaktism) next to the Buddha.[160] Other goddesses in these caves include Durga. The goddess iconography in these Buddhist caves is close, but not identical to the Hindu Shakta tradition. The "seven Goddess mothers" are found in other Buddhist caves and literature, such as their discussion in the Buddhist textManjusrimulakalpa andVairocanabhisambodhi.[160][161]
Matrika – mother goddesses – are found in both Shakta-Hinduism and Vajrayana-Buddhism.[162][163]
The secondary scripture of Sikhs,Dasam Granth attributed toGuru Gobind Singh, includes numerous sections on Shakta goddesses, particularlyChandi – the fierce warrior form of the Hindu goddess.[164] According to Nikky-Guninder Kaur Singh – a professor of Religious Studies, the stories about goddess Durga in theDasam Granth are reworkings of ancient Shakti mythologies.[165] A significant part of this Sikh scripture is based on the teachings in the Shakta textDevi Mahatmya found in theMarkandeya Purana of Hinduism.[166]
^abBrancaccio 2010, p. 21, 202–207: "To the right of the main Buddha image, carved out of the wall of the sanctum, is an ensemble of seven female images".
Brown, C. MacKenzie (1991).The Triumph of the Goddess: The Canonical Models and Theological Issues of the Devi-Bhagavata Purana. SUNY Series in Hindu Studies. State University of New York Press.ISBN978-0-7914-0364-8.
Brown, Cheever Mackenzie (1998).The Devi Gita: The Song of the Goddess: A Translation, Annotation, and Commentary. Albany: State University of New York Press.ISBN978-0-7914-3939-5.
Coburn, Thomas B. (1991).Encountering the Goddess: A translation of the Devi-Mahatmya and a Study of Its Interpretation. State University of New York Press.ISBN0791404463.
Coburn, Thomas B. (2002).Devī Māhātmya, The Crystallization of the Goddess Tradition. South Asia Books.ISBN81-208-0557-7.
Dasgupta, S (1996).Journal of the Indian Musicological Society. Vol. 27–28. Indian Musicological Society.
Grimes, John A. (1996).A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English. State University of New York Press.ISBN978-0791430675.
Gonda, Jan (1970).Visnuism and Sivaism: A Comparison. Bloomsbury Academic.ISBN978-1-4742-8080-8.
Gupta, Sanjukta (2013).Advaita Vedanta and Vaisnavism: The Philosophy of Madhusudana Sarasvati. Routledge.ISBN978-1-134-15774-7.
Greenberg, Yudit Kornberg (2008).Encyclopedia of Love in World Religions. ABC-CLIO.ISBN978-1-85109-980-1.
Harlan, Lindsey (1992).Religion and Rajput Women. Berkeley, California: University of California Press.ISBN0-520-07339-8.
Hiltebeitel, Alf; Erndl, Kathleen M. (2000).Is the Goddess a Feminist?: the Politics of South Asian Goddesses. New York University Press.ISBN978-0-8147-3619-7.
Hurley, Leigh; Hurley, Phillip (2012).Tantra, Yoga of Ecstasy: the Sadhaka's Guide to Kundalinin and the Left-Hand Path. Maithuna Publications.ISBN9780983784722.
Harlan, Lindsey (2003).The goddesses' henchmen gender in Indian hero worship. Oxford [u.a.]: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0195154269.
Harper, Katherine Anne; Brown, Robert L. (2012).The Roots of Tantra. State University of New York Press.ISBN978-0-7914-8890-4.
Jones, Constance; Ryan, James D. (2006).Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Infobase Publishing.ISBN978-0-8160-7564-5.
Jones, Constance; Ryan, James (2014).Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Infobase Publishing.ISBN978-0816054589.
Katznelson, Ira; Jones, Gareth Stedman (2010).Religion and the Political Imagination. Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-1-139-49317-8.
Kemmerer, Lisa; Nocella, Anthony J. (2011).Call to Compassion: Reflections on Animal Advocacy from the World's Religions. Lantern.ISBN978-1-59056-281-9.
Kali, Davadatta (2003).In Praise of the Goddess: The Devimahatmya and Its Meaning. Berwick, ME: Nicolas-Hays.ISBN8120829530.
Kinsley, David (1987).Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition. Motilal Banarsidass.ISBN978-81-208-0394-7.
Kinsley, David (1998).Tantric Visions of the Divine Feminine: The Ten Mahavidyas. Motilal Banarsidass.ISBN978-81-208-1523-0.
Krishna Warrier, A. J. (1999) [1967].TheSākta Upaniṣads. The Adyar Library and Research Center, Library Series. Vol. 89 (3rd. ed.). Chennai: Vasanta Press.
Lipner, Julius J. (2009).Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices (2nd ed.). Routledge.ISBN978-0-415-45677-7.
McDermott, Rachel Fell (1998). "The Western Kali". In Hawley, John; Wulff, Donna Marie (eds.).Devi: Goddesses of India. Motilal Banarsidass.ISBN978-81-208-1491-2.
McDermott, Rachel Fell (2005). "Bengali religions". In Lindsay Jones (ed.).Encyclopedia of Religion: 15 Volume Set. Vol. 2 (2nd ed.). Detroit, Mi: MacMillan Reference USA. pp. 824–832.ISBN0-02-865735-7.
McDermott, Rachel Fell (2011).Revelry, Rivalry, and Longing for the Goddesses of Bengal: The Fortunes of Hindu Festivals. Columbia University Press.ISBN978-0-231-12919-0.
Maharaj, Ayon (2020). "Panentheistic Cosmopsychism: Swami Vivekananda's Sāṃkhya-Vedāntic Solution to the Hard Problem of Consciousness". In Göcke, Benedikt Paul; Brüntrup, Godehard; Jaskolla, Ludwig (eds.).Panentheism and Panpsychism. Brill. pp. 273–301.doi:10.30965/9783957437303_015.ISBN978-3-95743-171-4.
Nikhilananda, Swami (trans.) (2000) [1942].The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna (9th ed.). New York: Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center.
Olivelle, Patrick (1992).The Samnyasa Upanisads. Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0195070453.
Ooi, Keat Gin (2004).Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor. ABC-CLIO.ISBN978-1-57607-770-2.
Pattanaik, Devdutt (2000).Devi the Mother-Goddess: An Introduction. Mumbai: Vakils, Feffer and Simons Ltd.
Pintchman, Tracy (2014).Seeking Mahadevi: Constructing the Identities of the Hindu Great Goddess. State University of New York Press.ISBN978-0-7914-9049-5.
Pintchman, Tracy (2015).The Rise of the Goddess in the Hindu Tradition. State University of New York Press.ISBN978-1-4384-1618-2.
Roberts, Peter Alan (2011).Mahamudra and Related Instructions: Core Teachings of the Kagyu Schools. Simon and Schuster.ISBN978-0-86171-444-5.
Rinehart, Robin (2011).Debating the Dasam Granth. Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-984247-6.
Rigopoulos, Antonio (1998).Dattatreya: The Immortal Guru, Yogin, and Avatara: A Study of the Transformative and Inclusive Character of a Multi-faceted Hindu Deity. State University of New York Press.ISBN978-0-7914-3696-7.
Saxena, N. B. (2012). Fulkerson, Mary McClintock; Briggs, Sheila (eds.).The Oxford Handbook of Feminist Theology. Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-927388-1.
Urban, Hugh (1997). "Elitism and Esotericism: Strategies of Secrecy and Power in South Indian Tantra and French Freemasonry".Numen.44 (1):1–38.doi:10.1163/1568527972629894.
"Shaivas".www.philtar.ac.uk. Overview Of World Religions. Philtar: University of Cumbria. Archived fromthe original on 24 October 2023. Retrieved13 December 2017.
"Hindus".www.pewresearch.org. 18 December 2012. Archived fromthe original on 17 April 2024. Retrieved10 March 2017.
