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This article describes the principal types ofreligious Jewish music from the days of theTemple to modern times.
The history of religious Jewish music is about the cantorial, synagogal, and the Temple music from Biblical to Modern times. The earliest synagogal music was based on the same system as that used in theTemple in Jerusalem. According to theMishnah, the regular Temple orchestra consisted of twelve instruments, and the choir of twelve male singers. A number of additional instruments were known to the ancient Hebrews, though they were not included in the regular orchestra of the Temple: theuggav (small flute), theabbuv (a reed flute or oboe-like instrument).
After the destruction of the Temple and the subsequentdiaspora of theJewish people, music was initially banned. Later, these restrictions would relax, save for the Jews of Yemen who maintained strict adherence to Talmudic and Maimonideanhalakha[1] and "instead of developing the playing of musical instruments, they perfected singing and rhythm."[2] (SeeYemenite Jewish poetry. For the modern Yemenite-Israeli musical phenomenon, however, seeYemenite Jewish music.)
It was with thepiyyutim (liturgical poems) that Jewish music began to crystallize into definite form. Thecantor sang thepiyyutim to melodies selected by their writer or by himself, thus introducing fixed melodies into synagogal music. The music may have preserved a few phrases in the reading ofScripture which recalled songs from the Temple itself; but generally it echoed the tones which the Jew of each age and country heard around him, not merely in the actual borrowing of tunes, but more in the tonality on which the local music was based.
From the time of theRenaissance Jewish communities in western Europe have shown some interest in modernizing the service by introducing composed music on the European model.Salamone Rossi, a composer at the court ofMantua, published a volume of psalm settings in a Baroque style similar toMonteverdi, but this did not become widely popular in synagogue use until revived in the late 19th century. In the 18th century the Venice community commissioned a number of works from non-Jewish composers such asCarlo Grossi andBenedetto Marcello.
Already in 1603, the sources tell us thatharpsichords were used in theSpanish and Portuguese synagogues inHamburg. Particularly in the Amsterdam community, but to some degree also in Hamburg and elsewhere, there was a flourishing ofclassical music in the synagogues in the 18th century. Important composers of the time includeAbraham de Casseres,Christian Joseph Lidarti and others. There was formerly a custom in Amsterdam, inspired by a hint in theZohar, of holding an instrumental concert on Friday afternoon prior to the coming in of the Sabbath, as a means of getting the congregants in the right mood for the Friday night service.
In theAshkenazi world, the main impetus towards composed Jewish music came in early 19th centuryVienna, whereSalomon Sulzer composed settings for a large part of the synagogue service, reflecting traditional Jewish music but set in a style reminiscent ofSchubert, who was a friend and contemporary. Settings in a somewhat similar style were composed byLouis Lewandowski ofBerlin,Samuel Naumbourg of Paris and Japhet ofFrankfurt. From this period dates the widespread use of choirs and organs, though inOrthodox synagogues the organ is not played onShabbat or festivals, and its use is often confined to celebrations such as weddings. 20th century Anglo-Jewish composers in the same taste areSamuel Alman, Mombach and Saqui.
Religious Jewish Music in the 20th century has varied greatly. Religious Jewish Music in the 20th century has spanned the gamut fromShlomo Carlebach'snigunim toDebbie Friedman's Jewish feminist folk, to the many sounds ofDaniel Ben Shalom.Velvel Pasternak has spent much of the late 20th century acting as a preservationist and committing what had been a strongly oral tradition to paper. Periodically Jewish music jumps into mainstream consciousness, with the reggae artistMatisyahu being the most recent example. In the 1970s, Jewish boys choirs became popular such as Pirchei (Volumes 1 -6), Miami Boys' Choir, Toronto Pirchei, and London School of Jewish Song. In addition, vocal groups became a fad with the Rabbis' Sons, Rashi and the Rishonim, Simchatone, and Ohr Chodosh.
Also, many Orthodox Jews often limit their children's exposure to music produced by those other than Orthodox Jews, so that they will not be influenced by what the parents see as harmful non-Orthodox ideas and fashions. A large body of music produced by Orthodox Jews for children is geared toward teaching religious and ethical traditions and laws. The lyrics of these songs are generally written in English with some Hebrew or Yiddish phrases.
Probably the oldest surviving tradition in Jewish music is the melodies used in chanting readings from the Scriptures. These melodies are denoted by special signs printed above or below each word in the Hebrew Bible, and differ greatly between Jewish communities, though some features found in many traditions suggest a common origin. They may also differ depending on the book or passage being read, or the time of year (e.g. there are special melodies for the scriptural readings on the High Holy Days, Tisha B'Av, Purim, and the three festival holidays, Sukkot, Pesach and Shavu'ot, as well as deviations from the typical melodies for the chanting of the 10 commandments, the song of the sea and some other smaller sections of text.)
Many of the passages in theprayer book, such as theAmidah and the Psalms, are chanted in a recitative rather than either read in normal speech or sung to a rhythmical tune: the style of chant in a particular community is sometimes known as itsnusach. The recitatives follow a system ofmusical modes, somewhat like themaqamat of Arabic music. For example, Ashkenazicantorial practice distinguishes a number ofsteiger (scales) named after the prayers in which they are most frequently used, such as theAdonoi moloch steiger and theAhavoh rabboh steiger.Mizrahi communities such as theSyrian Jews use the fullmaqam system.
The scales used may vary both with the particular prayer and with the season. For examples, there are often special modes for theHigh Holy Days, and in Syrian practice the scale used depends on the Torah reading for the week (seeWeekly Maqam). In some cases the actual melodies are fixed, while in others the reader has freedom of improvisation.
Certain passages in the prayers, such asNishmat, theKaddish precedingBarechu, and theKedushah, lend themselves to more elaborate individual rendition or choral singing. In some traditions the tunes of popular hymns are borrowed for these, while in others there are special choral compositions.
A piyyut is a Jewish liturgical poem, usually designated to be sung, chanted, or recited duringreligious services.Piyyutim have been written sinceMishnaic times. Most piyyutim are inHebrew orAramaic, and most follow some poetic scheme, such as anacrostic following the order of theHebrew alphabet or spelling out the name of the author. Many are in the quantitative metres used for Arabic poetry.
Many piyyutim are familiar to regular attenders of synagogue services. For example, the best-known piyyut may beAdon Olam ("Master of the World"), sometimes attributed toSolomon ibn Gabirol in 11th centurySpain. Its poetic form consists simply of rhyming eight-syllable couplets, and it is so beloved that it is often sung at the conclusion of many synagogue services, after the ritual nightly saying of theShema, and during the morning ritual of putting ontefillin. Another well-beloved piyyut isYigdal ("May God be Hallowed"), which is based upon theThirteen Principles of Faith developed byMaimonides.
Piyyutim have traditional tunes, but these vary greatly between communities, and a single community may have up to ten different tunes for well-known piyyutim such asAdon Olam andYigdal. Modern Jewish composers such asPhilip Glass often compose choral settings of piyyutim.
Zemirot are Jewish hymns, usually sung in theHebrew orAramaic languages, but sometimes also inYiddish orLadino. The best knownzemirot are those sung around the table onShabbat andJewish holidays. Some of the Sabbathzemirot are specific to certain times of the day, such as those sung for the Friday evening meal, the Saturday noon meal, andSeudah Shlishit, the third Sabbath meal just before sundown on Saturday afternoon. In some editions of the Jewish prayerbook (siddur), the words to these hymns are printed after the opening prayer (kiddush) for each meal. Otherzemirot are more generic and can be sung at any meal or other sacred occasion.
The words to manyzemirot are taken from poems written by various rabbis and sages during theMiddle Ages. Others are anonymousfolk songs that have been passed down from generation to generation.
Nigun refers to religious songs and tunes that are sung by groups. It is a form ofvoice instrumental music, often without any lyrics or words, although sounds like “bim-bim-bam” or “Ai-ai-ai!” are often used. Sometimes, Bible verses or quotes from other classical Jewish texts are sung repetitively in the form of anigun.Nigunim are largelyimprovisations, though they could be based on thematic passage and are stylized in form.
A revival of interest in Nigun was sparked as part ofHasidism. Different Hasidic groups have their ownnigunim, often composed by theirRebbe or leader. One of the most famous court composers wasYankel Talmud, who led theGer choir in the main Gersynagogues in Poland and in Jerusalem, and also composed more than 1,5000nigunim to accompany the prayers.[3] Hasidim gather around holidays to sing in groups. There are alsonigunim for individual meditation, calleddevekus ordevekut (connecting with God)nigunim. These are usually much slower than around-the-table nigunim, and are almost always sung without lyrics. TheBaal Shem Tov, founder of Hasidism, spoke ofdevekus nigunim as “songs that transcend syllables and sound.” Nigun has also been used by theMusar movement,[4][5] by theJewish renewal movement,[6] and in other Jewish movements.[7]
Pizmonim are traditional Jewish songs and melodies with the intentions of praising God as well as learning certain aspects of traditional religious teachings. They are sung throughout religious rituals and festivities such as prayers,circumcisions,bar mitzvahs, weddings and other ceremonies. Pizmonim are traditionally associated with Middle Eastern Sephardic Jews, although they are related toAshkenazi Jews'zemirot. The best known tradition is associated with Jews descended fromAleppo, though similar traditions exist amongIraqi Jews (where the songs are known asshbaִhoth, praises) and inNorth African countries. Jews of Greek, Turkish and Balkan origin have songs of the same kind inLadino, associated with the festivals: these are known ascoplas.
The texts of many pizmonim date back to theMiddle Ages or earlier, and are often based on verses in theBible. Many are taken from theTanakh, while others were composed by poets such asYehuda Halevi andIsrael Najara of Gaza. Some melodies are quite old, while others may be based on popularMiddle Eastern music, with the words composed specially to fit the tune.
The Baqashot are a collection of supplications, songs, and prayers that have been sung by theSephardic AleppianJewish community and other congregations for centuries each week onShabbat morning from midnight until dawn. Usually they are recited during the weeks of winter, when the nights are much longer.
The custom of singing Baqashot originated in Spain towards the time of the expulsion, but took on increased momentum in theKabbalistic circle inSafed in the 16th century. Baqashot probably evolved out of the tradition of saying petitionary prayers before dawn and was spread fromSafed by the followers ofIsaac Luria (16th century). With the spread of Safed Kabbalistic doctrine, the singing of Baqashot reached countries all round the Mediterranean and became customary in the communities of Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, Rhodes, Greece, Yugoslavia, Egypt, Turkey and Syria. It also influenced the Kabbalistically oriented confraternities in 18th-century Italy, and even became customary for a time in Sephardic communities in western Europe, such as Amsterdam and London, though in these communities it has since been dropped. By the turn of the 20th century Baqashot had become a widespread religious practice in several communities in Jerusalem as a communal form of prayer.