Creating new land from oceans, seas, riverbeds or lakes
This article is about land reclaimed from water bodies. For land reclaimed from deserts, seeDesert greening. For improvements to disturbed land, seeLand rehabilitation.
"Land fill" redirects here. For the disposal of waste material, seeLandfill.
"Reclaimed" redirects here. For other uses, seeReclaim.
Land reclamation, often known asreclamation, and also known asland fill (not to be confused with a wastelandfill), is the process of creating newland fromoceans,seas,riverbeds orlake beds. The land reclaimed is known asreclamation ground,reclaimed land, orland fill.
Inancient Egypt, the rulers of theTwelfth Dynasty (c. 2000–1800 BC) undertook a far-sighted land reclamation scheme to increase agricultural output. They constructedlevees andcanals to connect theFaiyum with theBahr Yussef waterway, diverting water that would have flowed intoLake Moeris and causing gradual evaporation around the lake's edges, creating new farmland from the reclaimed land. A similar land reclamation system using dams and drainage canals was used in the GreekCopaic Basin during theMiddle Helladic Period (c. 1900–1600 BC).[1] Another early large-scale project was theBeemster Polder in the Netherlands, realized in 1612 adding 70 square kilometres (27 sq mi) of land. In Hong Kong, thePraya Reclamation Scheme added 20 to 24 hectares (50 to 60 acres) of land in 1890 during the second phase of construction. It was one of the most ambitious projects ever taken during the era ofcolonial Hong Kong.[2] Some 20% of land in theTokyo Bay area has been reclaimed,[3] most notablyOdaiba artificial island. The city ofRio de Janeiro was largely built on reclaimed land, as wasWellington, New Zealand.
Land reclamation can be achieved by a number of different methods. The simplest method involves filling the area with large amounts of heavy rock and/orcement, then filling with clay and dirt until the desired height is reached. The process is called "infilling"[4] and the material used to fill the space is generally called "infill".[5][6] Draining of submergedwetlands is often used to reclaim land foragricultural use.Deep cement mixing is used typically in situations in which the material displaced by eitherdredging or draining may be contaminated and hence needs to be contained. Land dredging is also another method of land reclamation. It is the removal of sediments and debris from the bottom of a body of water. It is commonly used for maintaining reclaimed land masses as sedimentation, a natural process, fills channels and harbors.[7]
The shore ofJakarta Bay. Land is usually reclaimed to create new housing areas and real estate properties, for the rapidly expanding city ofJakarta. So far, the largest reclamation project in the city is the creation of Golf Island, north ofPantai Indah Kapuk.[11]
Forest City, an integrated residential and tourism district inJohor, Malaysia, was controversial due to its reclamation of wetlands of international importance under theRamsar Convention in a designated Environmentally Sensitive Area (ESA) Rank 1 area.
Reclaimed coastal area inCoron, Palawan, Philippines. The bare, brown-colored reclaimed land stands out from the original vegetated coastside, as seen from atop Mt. Tapyas.
Thecity-state ofSingapore, where land is in short supply, is also famous for its efforts on land reclamation.[13]
The size ofSingapore has increased by 25% from 581.5 square kilometres in 1960 to 725.7 in 2019. This is part of the nation's plans to create more homes and common spaces in the land-scarcecity-state. Upcoming projects include the Long Island project, involving the reclamation of three tracts of land (expected to span around 800 ha), which is set at a higher level to protect against rising sea levels. It will also enclose a body of water, acting as a reservoir, strengthening the nation's water resilience. Detailed technical studies are currently under way, lasting five years. This project would take a few decades to plan and implement.[14][15]
Considerable areas ofDunedin, New Zealand, including the "Southern Endowment", stretching from the central city to the southeastern suburbs along the shore ofOtago Harbour.
Prior to theNapier earthquake of 1931, significant reclamation of thethen-lagoon was undertaken in areas of Napier South and Ahuriri. There were also minor reclamation works undertaken after 1931 on the new low-lying lands brought up by the earthquake.
A related practice is thedraining of swampy or seasonally submergedwetlands to convert them tofarmland. While this does not create new land exactly, it allows commercially productive use of land that would otherwise be restricted towildlifehabitat. It is also an important method ofmosquito control.
Even in the post-industrial age, there have been land reclamation projects intended for increasing available agricultural land. For example, the village ofOgata inAkita, Japan, was established on land reclaimed fromLake Hachirōgata (Japan's second largest lake at the time) starting in 1957. By 1977, the amount of land reclaimed totalled 172.03 square kilometres (66.42 sq mi).[28]
Beach rebuilding is the process of repairingbeaches using materials such assand ormud from inland. This can be used to build up beaches suffering frombeach starvation or erosion fromlongshore drift. It stops the movement of the original beach material through longshore drift and retains a natural look to the beach. Although it is not a long-lasting solution, it is cheap compared to other types ofcoastal defences. An example of this is the city of Mumbai.[10]
Ashuman overcrowding of developed areas intensified during the 20th century, it has become important to develop land re-use strategies for completed landfills. Some of the most common usages are for parks,golf courses and other sports fields. Increasingly, however, office buildings and industrial uses are made on a completed landfill. In these latter uses,methane capture is customarily carried out to minimize explosive hazard within the building.
Another strategy for landfill is the incineration of landfill trash at high temperature via theplasma-arc gasification process, which is currently used at two facilities inJapan, and was proposed to be used at a facility inSt. Lucie County,Florida.[30] The planned facility in Florida was later canceled.[31]
Parts (highlighted in brown) of theSan Francisco Bay were reclaimed from wetlands for urban use.
Draining wetlands for ploughing, for example, is a form ofhabitat destruction. In some parts of the world, new reclamation projects are restricted or no longer allowed, due toenvironmental protection laws. Reclamation projects have strong negative impacts on coastal populations, although some species can take advantage of the newly created area.[32] A 2022 global analysis estimated that 39% of losses (approximately 5,300 km2 or 2,000 sq mi) and 14% of gains (approximately 1,300 km2 or 500 sq mi) of tidal wetlands (mangroves,tidal flats, andtidal marshes) between 1999 and 2019 were due to direct human activities, including conversion to aquaculture, agriculture, plantations, coastal developments and other physical structures.[33]
Reclaimed land is highly susceptible tosoil liquefaction during earthquakes,[35] which can amplify the amount of damage that occurs to buildings and infrastructure.Subsidence is another issue, both fromsoil compaction on filled land, and also when wetlands are enclosed bylevees and drained to createpolders. Drainedmarshes will eventually sink below the surrounding water level, increasing the danger fromflooding.
About 110 km2 (42 sq mi) in total and has 12,000 square kilometres (4,600 sq mi) potential (8% of total area) up to 12 metres (39 ft) depth in the territorial sea area.[37]
Mumbai – An archipelago of originallyseven separate islands were joined by land reclamation over a span of five centuries. This was done to develop Mumbai as a harbour city.
Cebu South Road Properties,Cebu City, Philippines - Artificial island which is 300 hectares was built along the sea between Mainland Cebu and Kawit Island. This was done to address the increasing need of urban and residential development inCebu City due to its very progressive economy.
20 percent of the original size or 135 km2 (52 sq mi). As of 2003[update], plans for 99 km2 (38 sq mi) more are to go ahead,[47] even though disputes persist with Malaysia over Singapore's extensive land reclamation works.[48] Parts ofChangi Airport are also on reclaimed land.
As of 2006, 38 percent or 1,550 km2 (600 sq mi) of coastal wetlands reclaimed, including 400 km2 (150 sq mi) atSaemangeum.Songdo International Business district, the largest private development in history, is a large-scale reclamation project built entirely on tidal mudflats.
0.41 km2 (0.16 sq mi) out of 2.05 km2 (0.79 sq mi), or one fifth of Monaco comes from land taken from the sea, mainly in the neighborhoods of Fontvieille,La Condamine, andLarvotto/Bas Moulins.
About1⁄6 (almost 17%) of the entire country, or about 7,000 km2 (2,700 sq mi) in total, has been reclaimed from the sea, lakes, marshes and swamps. The province ofFlevoland has almost completely been reclaimed from theZuiderzee.
Significant areas of land totaling several hundred hectares have been reclaimed along the harbourfronts ofAuckland,Dunedin, andWellington. In Dunedin – which in its early days was nicknamed "Mudedin" – around 2.5 km2 (0.97 sq mi), including much of the inner city and suburbs ofDunedin North,South Dunedin, andAndersons Bay is reclaimed from theOtago Harbour, and a similar area in the suburbs ofSt Clair andSt Kilda is reclaimed swampland. The international airports servingAuckland andWellington have had significant reclamation for runway use.[49][50]
^Administration, US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric."What is dredging?".oceanservice.noaa.gov. Retrieved2018-03-19.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^Murray N. J., Clemens R. S., Phinn S. R., Possingham H. P. & Fuller R. A. (2014) Tracking the rapid loss of tidal wetlands in the Yellow Sea. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 12, 267–72doi:10.1890/130260
^Brian Lander. State Management of River Dikes in Early China: New Sources on the Environmental History of the Central Yangzi Region . T'oung Pao 100.4-5 (2014): 325–362; Mira Mihelich, “Polders and Politics of Land Reclamation in Southeast China during the Northern Sung” (Ph.D. dissertation, Cornell Univ., 1979); Peter Perdue, Exhausting the Earth: State and Peasant in Hunan 1500–1850 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Council on East Asian Studies, 1987); Mei Li 梅莉, Zhang Guoxiong 張國雄, and Yan Changgui 晏昌貴, Lianghu pingyuan kaifa tanyuan 兩湖平原開發探源 (Nanchang: Jiangxi jiaoyu chubanshe, 1995); Shiba Yoshinobu, “Environment versus Water Control: The Case of the Southern Hangzhou Bay Area from the Mid-Tang Through the Qing,” in Sediments of Time: Environment and Society in Chinese History, ed. Mark Elvin andTs'ui-jung Liu (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 135–64
^Paul B. Awosika and Marc Papineau,Phase OneEnvironmental Site Assessment, 7000 Marina Boulevard, Brisbane, California, prepared forArgentum International by Certified. Engineering & Testing Company, Boston, Massachusetts, July 15, 1993
^"Singapore".The World Factbook.CIA. 1 September 2010. section Transnational issues. Retrieved1 October 2010.disputes persist with Malaysia over […] extensive land reclamation works
^Omotosho, Jimmy (2013). "New Cities and Real Estate Markets- A focus on the Eko Atlantic City Project".Proceedings of the 13th African Real Estate Society Conference. African Real Estate Society.doi:10.15396/afres2013_109.
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