Radon is achemical element; it hassymbolRn andatomic number 86. It is aradioactivenoble gas and is colorless and odorless. Of the three naturally occurring radon isotopes, only222Rn has a sufficiently longhalf-life (3.825 days) for it to be released from the soil and rock where it is generated. Radon isotopes are the immediatedecay products ofradium isotopes. The instability of222Rn, its most stable isotope, makes radon one of the rarest elements. Radon will be present on Earth for several billion more years despite its short half-life, because it is constantly being produced as a step in the decay chains of238U and232Th, both of which are abundant radioactive nuclides with half-lives of at least several billion years. The decay of radon produces many other short-livednuclides, known as "radon daughters", ending at stable isotopes oflead.[3]222Rn occurs in significant quantities as a step in the normal radioactivedecay chain of238U, also known as theuranium series, which slowly decays into a variety of radioactive nuclides and eventually decays into stable206Pb.220Rn occurs in minute quantities as an intermediate step in the decay chain of232Th, also known as thethorium series, which eventually decays into stable208Pb.
Radon was discovered in 1899 byErnest Rutherford andRobert B. Owens atMcGill University inMontreal, and was the fifth radioactive element to be discovered. First known as "emanation", the radioactive gas was identified during experiments with radium, thorium oxide, and actinium byFriedrich Ernst Dorn, Rutherford and Owens, andAndré-Louis Debierne, respectively, and each element's emanation was considered to be a separate substance: radon, thoron, and actinon. SirWilliam Ramsay andRobert Whytlaw-Gray considered that the radioactive emanations may contain a new element of the noble gas family, and isolated "radium emanation" in 1909 to determine its properties. In 1911, the element Ramsay and Whytlaw-Gray isolated was accepted by theInternational Commission for Atomic Weights, and in 1923, the International Committee for Chemical Elements and theInternational Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) chose radon as the accepted name for the element's most stable isotope,222Rn; thoron and actinon were also recognized by IUPAC as distinctisotopes of the element.[4]
Under standard conditions, radon is gaseous and can be easily inhaled, posing a health hazard. However, the primary danger comes not from radon itself, but from its decay products, known as radon daughters. These decay products, often existing as single atoms or ions, can attach themselves to airborne dust particles. Although radon is a noble gas and does not adhere to lung tissue (meaning it is often exhaled before decaying), the radon daughters attached to dust are more likely to stick to the lungs. This increases the risk of harm, as the radon daughters can cause damage to lung tissue.[5] Radon and its daughters are, taken together, often the single largest contributor to an individual'sbackground radiation dose, but due to local differences in geology,[6] the level of exposure to radon gas differs by location. A common source of environmental radon is uranium-containing minerals in the ground; it therefore accumulates in subterranean areas such as basements. Radon can also occur in ground water, such asspring waters and hot springs.[7] Radon trapped inpermafrost may be released by climate-change-inducedthawing of permafrosts,[8] and radon may also be released into groundwater and the atmosphere following seismic events leading toearthquakes, which has led to its investigation in the field ofearthquake prediction.[9] It is possible to test for radon in buildings, and to use techniques such as sub-slab depressurization formitigation.[10][11]
Epidemiological studies have shown a clear association between breathing high concentrations of radon and incidence oflung cancer.[12] Radon is a contaminant that affectsindoor air quality worldwide. According to theUnited States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), radon is the second most frequent cause of lung cancer, after cigarette smoking, causing 21,000 lung cancer deaths per year in the United States. About 2,900 of these deaths occur among people who have never smoked. While radon is the second most frequent cause of lung cancer, it is the number one cause among non-smokers, according to EPA policy-oriented estimates.[13] Significant uncertainties exist for the health effects of low-dose exposures.[14]
Emission spectrum of radon, photographed byErnest Rutherford in 1908. Numbers at the side of the spectrum are wavelengths. The middle spectrum is of radium emanation (radon), while the outer two are ofhelium (added to calibrate the wavelengths).
Radon is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless[15] gas and therefore is not detectable by human senses alone. Atstandard temperature and pressure, it forms amonatomic gas with a density of 9.73 kg/m3, about 8 times the density of theEarth's atmosphere at sea level, 1.217 kg/m3.[16] It is one of the densest gases at room temperature (a few are denser, e.g.CF3(CF2)2CF3 andWF6) and is the densest of the noble gases. Although colorless at standard temperature and pressure, when cooled below itsfreezing point of 202 K (−71 °C; −96 °F), it emits a brilliantradioluminescence that turns from yellow to orange-red as the temperature lowers.[17] Uponcondensation, it glows because of the intense radiation it produces.[18] It is sparinglysoluble in water, but more soluble than lighter noble gases. It is appreciably more soluble inorganic liquids than in water. Its solubility equation is as follows:[19]
where is the molar fraction of radon, is the absolute temperature, and and are solvent constants.
Radon is a member of the zero-valence elements that are called noble gases, and is chemically not veryreactive. The 3.8-day half-life of222Rn makes it useful in physical sciences as a naturaltracer. Because radon is a gas at standard conditions, unlike its decay-chain parents, it can readily be extracted from them for research.[20]
It isinert to most common chemical reactions, such ascombustion, because the outervalence shell contains eightelectrons. This produces a stable, minimum energy configuration in which the outer electrons are tightly bound.[21] Itsfirst ionization energy—the minimum energy required to extract one electron from it—is 1037 kJ/mol.[22] In accordance withperiodic trends, radon has a lowerelectronegativity than the element one period before it,xenon, and is therefore more reactive. Early studies concluded that the stability of radonhydrate should be of the same order as that of the hydrates ofchlorine (Cl 2) orsulfur dioxide (SO 2), and significantly higher than the stability of the hydrate ofhydrogen sulfide (H 2S).[23]
Because of its cost and radioactivity, experimental chemical research is seldom performed with radon, and as a result there are very few reported compounds of radon, all eitherfluorides oroxides. Radon can beoxidized by powerful oxidizing agents such asfluorine, thus formingradon difluoride (RnF 2).[24] It decomposes back to its elements at a temperature of above 523 K (250 °C; 482 °F), and is reduced by water to radon gas and hydrogen fluoride: it may also be reduced back to its elements byhydrogen gas.[25] It has a lowvolatility and was thought to beRnF 2. Because of the short half-life of radon and the radioactivity of its compounds, it has not been possible to study the compound in any detail. Theoretical studies on this molecule predict that it should have a Rn–Fbond distance of 2.08 ångströms (Å), and that the compound is thermodynamically more stable and less volatile than its lighter counterpartxenon difluoride (XeF 2).[26] Theoctahedral moleculeRnF 6 was predicted to have an even lowerenthalpy of formation than the difluoride.[27] The [RnF]+ion is believed to form by the following reaction:[28]
Rn (g) + 2[O 2]+ [SbF 6]− (s) →[RnF]+ [Sb 2F 11]− (s) + 2O 2 (g)
For this reason,antimony pentafluoride together withchlorine trifluoride andN 2F 2Sb 2F 11 have been considered for radon gas removal inuranium mines due to the formation of radon–fluorine compounds.[20] Radon compounds can be formed by the decay of radium in radium halides, a reaction that has been used to reduce the amount of radon that escapes from targets duringirradiation.[25] Additionally, salts of the [RnF]+ cation with the anionsSbF− 6,TaF− 6, andBiF− 6 are known.[25] Radon is also oxidised bydioxygen difluoride toRnF 2 at 173 K (−100 °C; −148 °F).[25]
Radon oxides are among the few other reportedcompounds of radon;[29] only the trioxide (RnO 3) has been confirmed.[30] The higher fluoridesRnF 4 andRnF 6 have been claimed[30] and are calculated to be stable,[31] but their identification is unclear.[30] They may have been observed in experiments where unknown radon-containing products distilled together withxenon hexafluoride: these may have beenRnF 4,RnF 6, or both.[25] Trace-scale heating of radon with xenon, fluorine,bromine pentafluoride, and eithersodium fluoride ornickel fluoride was claimed to produce a higher fluoride as well whichhydrolysed to formRnO 3. While it has been suggested that these claims were really due to radon precipitating out as the solid complex [RnF]+ 2[NiF6]2−, the fact that radoncoprecipitates fromaqueous solution withCsXeO 3F has been taken as confirmation thatRnO 3 was formed, which has been supported by further studies of the hydrolysed solution. That [RnO3F]− did not form in other experiments may have been due to the high concentration of fluoride used.Electromigration studies also suggest the presence of cationic [HRnO3]+ and anionic [HRnO4]− forms of radon inweakly acidic aqueous solution (pH > 5), the procedure having previously been validated by examination of the homologous xenon trioxide.[30]
Thedecay technique has also been used. Avrorin et al. reported in 1982 that212Fr compounds cocrystallised with their caesium analogues appeared to retain chemically bound radon after electron capture; analogies with xenon suggested the formation of RnO3, but this could not be confirmed.[32]
It is likely that the difficulty in identifying higher fluorides of radon stems from radon being kinetically hindered from being oxidised beyond the divalent state because of the strong ionicity ofradon difluoride (RnF 2) and the high positive charge on radon in RnF+; spatial separation ofRnF 2 molecules may be necessary to clearly identify higher fluorides of radon, of whichRnF 4 is expected to be more stable thanRnF 6 due tospin–orbit splitting of the 6p shell of radon (RnIV would have a closed-shell 6s2 6p2 1/2 configuration). Therefore, whileRnF 4 should have a similar stability toxenon tetrafluoride (XeF 4),RnF 6 would likely be much less stable thanxenon hexafluoride (XeF 6):radon hexafluoride would also probably be aregular octahedral molecule, unlike the distorted octahedral structure ofXeF 6, because of theinert pair effect.[33][34] Because radon is quite electropositive for a noble gas, it is possible that radon fluorides actually take on highly fluorine-bridged structures and are not volatile.[34] Extrapolation down the noble gas group would suggest also the possible existence of RnO, RnO2, and RnOF4, as well as the first chemically stable noble gas chlorides RnCl2 and RnCl4, but none of these have yet been found.[25]
Radoncarbonyl (RnCO) has been predicted to be stable and to have alinear molecular geometry.[35] The moleculesRn 2 and RnXe were found to be significantly stabilized byspin-orbit coupling.[36] Radon caged inside afullerene has been proposed as a drug fortumors.[37] Despite the existence of Xe(VIII), no Rn(VIII) compounds have been claimed to exist;RnF 8 should be highly unstable chemically (XeF8 is thermodynamically unstable). It is predicted that the most stable Rn(VIII) compound would be barium perradonate (Ba2RnO6), analogous to bariumperxenate.[31] The instability of Rn(VIII) is due to therelativistic stabilization of the 6s shell, also known as theinert pair effect.[31]
Radon reacts with the liquidhalogen fluorides ClF,ClF 3,ClF 5,BrF 3,BrF 5, andIF 7 to formRnF 2. In halogen fluoride solution, radon is nonvolatile and exists as the RnF+ and Rn2+ cations; addition of fluoride anions results in the formation of the complexesRnF− 3 andRnF2− 4, paralleling the chemistry ofberyllium(II) andaluminium(III).[25] Thestandard electrode potential of the Rn2+/Rn couple has been estimated as +2.0 V,[38] although there is no evidence for the formation of stable radon ions or compounds in aqueous solution.[25]
Radon has nostable isotopes. Thirty-nine radioactive isotopes have been characterized, withmass numbers ranging from 193 to 231.[39][40] Six of them, from 217 to 222 inclusive, occur naturally. The most stable isotope is222Rn (half-life 3.82 days), which is a decay product of226Ra, the latter being itself a decay product of238U.[41] A trace amount of the (highly unstable) isotope218Rn (half-life about 35 milliseconds) is also among the daughters of222Rn. The isotope216Rn would be produced by thedouble beta decay of natural216Po; while energetically possible, this process has however never been seen.[42]
Three other radon isotopes have a half-life of over an hour:211Rn (about 15 hours),210Rn (2.4 hours) and224Rn (about 1.8 hours). However, none of these three occur naturally.220Rn, also called thoron, is a natural decay product of the most stable thorium isotope (232Th). It has a half-life of 55.6 seconds and also emitsalpha radiation. Similarly,219Rn is derived from the most stable isotope ofactinium (227Ac)—named "actinon"—and is an alpha emitter with a half-life of 3.96 seconds.[39]
222Rn belongs to the radium and uranium-238 decay chain, and has a half-life of 3.8235 days. Its first four products (excluding marginaldecay schemes) are very short-lived, meaning that the corresponding disintegrations are indicative of the initial radon distribution. Its decay goes through the following sequence:[39]
210Pb, which has a much longer half-life of 22.3 years, beta decaying to...
210Bi, 5.013 days, beta decaying to...
210Po, 138.376 days, alpha decaying to...
206Pb, stable.
The radon equilibrium factor[43] is the ratio between the activity of all short-period radon progenies (which are responsible for most of radon's biological effects), and the activity that would be at equilibrium with the radon parent.
If a closed volume is constantly supplied with radon, the concentration of short-lived isotopes will increase until an equilibrium is reached where the overall decay rate of the decay products equals that of the radon itself. The equilibrium factor is 1 when both activities are equal, meaning that the decay products have stayed close to the radon parent long enough for the equilibrium to be reached, within a couple of hours. Under these conditions, each additional pCi/L of radon will increase exposure by 0.01 working level (WL, a measure of radioactivity commonly used in mining). These conditions are not always met; in many homes, the equilibrium factor is typically 40%; that is, there will be 0.004 WL of daughters for each pCi/L of radon in the air.[44]210Pb takes much longer to come in equilibrium with radon, dependent on environmental factors,[45] but if the environment permits accumulation of dust over extended periods of time,210Pb and its decay products may contribute to overall radiation levels as well. Several studies on the radioactive equilibrium of elements in the environment find it more useful to use the ratio of other222Rn decay products with210Pb, such as210Po, in measuring overall radiation levels.[46]
Because of theirelectrostatic charge, radon progenies adhere to surfaces or dust particles, whereas gaseous radon does not. Attachment removes them from the air, usually causing the equilibrium factor in the atmosphere to be less than 1. The equilibrium factor is also lowered by air circulation or air filtration devices, and is increased by airborne dust particles, including cigarette smoke. The equilibrium factor found in epidemiological studies is 0.4.[47]
Apparatus used by Ramsay and Whytlaw-Gray to isolate radon.M is acapillary tube, where approximately 0.1 mm3 were isolated. Radon mixed with hydrogen entered the evacuated system through siphonA; mercury is shown in black.
Radon was discovered in 1899 byErnest Rutherford andRobert B. Owens atMcGill University inMontreal.[48] It was the fifth radioactive element to be discovered, after uranium, thorium, radium, and polonium.[49][50][51] In 1899,Pierre andMarie Curie observed that the gas emitted by radium remained radioactive for a month.[52] Later that year, Rutherford and Owens noticed variations when trying to measure radiation from thorium oxide.[48] Rutherford noticed that the compounds of thorium continuously emit a radioactive gas that remains radioactive for several minutes, and called this gas "emanation" (fromLatin:emanare, to flow out, andemanatio, expiration),[53] and later "thorium emanation" ("Th Em"). In 1900,Friedrich Ernst Dorn reported some experiments in which he noticed that radium compounds emanate a radioactive gas he named "radium emanation" ("Ra Em").[54] In 1901, Rutherford andHarriet Brooks demonstrated that the emanations are radioactive, but credited the Curies for the discovery of the element.[55] In 1903, similar emanations were observed from actinium byAndré-Louis Debierne, and were called "actinium emanation" ("Ac Em").[56]
Several shortened names were soon suggested for the three emanations:exradio,exthorio, andexactinio in 1904;[57]radon (Ro),thoron (To), andakton oracton (Ao) in 1918;[58]radeon,thoreon, andactineon in 1919,[59] and eventuallyradon,thoron, andactinon in 1920.[60] (The name radon is not related to that of the Austrian mathematicianJohann Radon.) The likeness of thespectra of these three gases with those of argon, krypton, and xenon, and their observed chemical inertia led SirWilliam Ramsay to suggest in 1904 that the "emanations" might contain a new element of the noble-gas family.[57]
In 1909, Ramsay andRobert Whytlaw-Gray isolated radon and determined itsmelting temperature andcritical point.[61] Because it does not conform to expected periodic trends, their obtained melting point (the only experimental value) was questioned in 1925 byFriedrich Paneth and E. Rabinowitsch, butab initio Monte Carlo simulations from 2018 agree almost exactly with Ramsay and Gray's result.[62] In 1910, they determined itsdensity (that showed it was the heaviest known gas) and its position in the periodic table.[61] They wrote that "L'expressionl'émanation du radium est fort incommode" ("the expression 'radium emanation' is very awkward") and suggested the new name niton (Nt) (fromLatin:nitens, shining) to emphasize the radioluminescence property,[63] and in 1912 it was accepted by theInternational Commission for Atomic Weights. In 1923, the International Committee for Chemical Elements andInternational Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) chose the name of the most stable isotope, radon, as the name of the element. The isotopes thoron and actinon were later renamed220Rn and219Rn. This has caused some confusion in the literature regarding the element's discovery as while Dorn had discovered radon the isotope, he was not the first to discover radon the element.[4]
As late as the 1960s, the element was also referred to simply asemanation.[64] The first synthesized compound of radon, radon fluoride, was obtained in 1962.[65] Even today, the wordradon may refer to either the element or its isotope222Rn, withthoron remaining in use as a short name for220Rn to stem this ambiguity. The nameactinon for219Rn is rarely encountered today, probably due to the short half-life of that isotope.[4]
The danger of high exposure to radon in mines, where exposures can reach 1,000,000 Bq/m3, has long been known. In 1530,Paracelsus described a wasting disease of miners, themala metallorum, andGeorg Agricola recommended ventilation in mines to avoid this mountain sickness (Bergsucht).[66] In 1879, this condition was identified as lung cancer by Harting and Hesse in their investigation of miners from Schneeberg, Germany.[67] The first major studies with radon and health occurred in the context of uranium mining in theJoachimsthal region ofBohemia.[68] In the US, studies and mitigation only followed decades of health effects on uranium miners of theSouthwestern US employed during the earlyCold War; standards were not implemented until 1971.[69]
In the early 20th century in the US, gold contaminated with the radon daughter210Pb entered the jewelry industry. This was from goldbrachytherapy seeds that had held222Rn, which were melted down after the radon had decayed.[70]
The presence of radon in indoor air was documented as early as 1950. Beginning in the 1970s, research was initiated to address sources of indoor radon, determinants of concentration, health effects, and mitigation approaches. In the US, the problem of indoor radon received widespread publicity and intensified investigation after a widely publicized incident in 1984. During routine monitoring at a Pennsylvania nuclear power plant, a worker was found to be contaminated with radioactivity. A high concentration of radon in his home was subsequently identified as responsible.[71][67]
210Pb is formed from the decay of222Rn. Here is a typical deposition rate of210Pb as observed in Japan as a function of time, due to variations in radon concentration.[72]
Discussions of radon concentrations in the environment refer to222Rn, the decay product of uranium and radium. While the average rate of production of220Rn (from the thorium decay series) is about the same as that of222Rn, the amount of220Rn in the environment is much less than that of222Rn because of the short half-life of220Rn (55 seconds, versus 3.8 days respectively).[3]
Radon concentration in the atmosphere is usually measured inbecquerel per cubic meter (Bq/m3), theSI derived unit. Another unit of measurement common in the US ispicocuries per liter (pCi/L); 1 pCi/L = 37 Bq/m3.[44] Typical domestic exposures average about 48 Bq/m3 indoors, though this varies widely, and 15 Bq/m3 outdoors.[73]
In the mining industry, the exposure is traditionally measured inworking level (WL), and the cumulative exposure inworking level month (WLM); 1 WL equals any combination of short-lived222Rn daughters (218Po,214Pb,214Bi, and214Po) in 1 liter of air that releases 1.3 × 105 MeV of potential alpha energy;[44] 1 WL is equivalent to 2.08 × 10−5 joules per cubic meter of air (J/m3).[3] The SI unit of cumulative exposure is expressed in joule-hours per cubic meter (J·h/m3). One WLM is equivalent to 3.6 × 10−3 J·h/m3. An exposure to 1 WL for 1 working-month (170 hours) equals 1 WLM cumulative exposure. TheInternational Commission on Radiological Protection recommends an annual limit of 4.8WLM for miners.[74]: R5 Assuming 2000 hours of work per year, this corresponds to a concentration of 1500 Bq/m3.
222Rn decays to210Pb and other radioisotopes. The levels of210Pb can be measured. The rate of deposition of this radioisotope is weather-dependent.[75]
Radon concentrations found in natural environments are much too low to be detected by chemical means. A 1,000 Bq/m3 (relatively high) concentration corresponds to 0.17 picogram per cubic meter (pg/m3). The average concentration of radon in the atmosphere is about 6×10−18molar percent, or about 150 atoms in each milliliter of air.[76] The radon activity of the entire Earth's atmosphere originates from only a few tens of grams of radon, consistently replaced by decay of larger amounts of radium, thorium, and uranium.[77]
Radon is produced by the radioactive decay of radium-226, which is found in uranium ores, phosphate rock, shales, igneous and metamorphic rocks such as granite, gneiss, and schist, and to a lesser degree, in common rocks such as limestone.[6][78] Every square mile of surface soil, to a depth of 6 inches (2.6 km2 to a depth of 15 cm), contains about 1 gram of radium, which releases radon in small amounts to the atmosphere.[3] It is estimated that 2.4 billion curies (90 EBq) of radon are released from soil annually worldwide.[79] This is equivalent to some 15.3 kilograms (34 lb).
Radon concentration can differ widely from place to place. In the open air, it ranges from 1 to 100 Bq/m3, even less (0.1 Bq/m3) above the ocean. In caves or ventilated mines, or poorly ventilated houses, its concentration climbs to 20–2,000 Bq/m3.[80]
Radon concentration can be much higher in mining contexts. Ventilation regulations instruct to maintain radon concentration in uranium mines under the "working level", with 95th percentile levels ranging up to nearly 3 WL (546 pCi222Rn per liter of air; 20.2 kBq/m3, measured from 1976 to 1985).[3]The concentration in the air at the (unventilated)Gastein Healing Gallery averages 43 kBq/m3 (1.2 nCi/L) with maximal value of 160 kBq/m3 (4.3 nCi/L).[81]
Radon mostly appears with the radium/uranium series (decay chain) (222Rn), and marginally with the thorium series (220Rn). The element emanates naturally from the ground, and some building materials, all over the world, wherever traces of uranium or thorium are found, and particularly in regions with soils containinggranite orshale, which have a higher concentration of uranium. Not all granitic regions are prone to high emissions of radon. Being a rare gas, it usually migrates freely through faults and fragmented soils, and may accumulate in caves or water. Owing to its very short half-life (four days for222Rn), radon concentration decreases very quickly when the distance from the production area increases. Radon concentration varies greatly with season and atmospheric conditions. For instance, it has been shown to accumulate in the air if there is ameteorological inversion and little wind.[82]
High concentrations of radon can be found in some spring waters and hot springs.[83] The towns ofBoulder, Montana;Misasa;Bad Kreuznach, Germany; and the country of Japan have radium-rich springs that emit radon. To be classified as a radon mineral water, radon concentration must be above 2 nCi/L (74 kBq/m3).[84] The activity of radon mineral water reaches 2 MBq/m3 in Merano and 4 MBq/m3 in Lurisia (Italy).[81]
Natural radon concentrations in theEarth's atmosphere are so low that radon-rich water in contact with the atmosphere will continually lose radon byvolatilization. Hence,ground water has a higher concentration of222Rn thansurface water, because radon is continuously produced by radioactive decay of226Ra present in rocks. Likewise, thesaturated zone of a soil frequently has a higher radon content than theunsaturated zone because ofdiffusional losses to the atmosphere.[85]
In 1971,Apollo 15 passed 110 km (68 mi) above theAristarchus plateau on theMoon, and detected a significant rise inalpha particles thought to be caused by the decay of222Rn. The presence of222Rn has been inferred later from data obtained from theLunar Prospector alpha particle spectrometer.[86]
Radon is found in somepetroleum. Because radon has a similar pressure and temperature curve topropane, andoil refineries separate petrochemicals based on their boiling points, the piping carrying freshly separated propane in oil refineries can becomecontaminated because of decaying radon and its products.[87]
Residues from the petroleum andnatural gas industry often contain radium and its daughters. The sulfate scale from anoil well can be radium rich, while the water, oil, and gas from a well often contains radon. Radon decays to form solid radioisotopes that form coatings on the inside of pipework.[87]
Measurement of radon levels in the first decades of its discovery was mainly done to determine the presence of radium and uranium in geological surveys. In 1956, most likely the first indoor survey of radon decay products was performed in Sweden,[88] with the intent of estimating the public exposure to radon and its decay products. From 1975 up until 1984, small studies in Sweden, Austria, the United States and Norway aimed to measure radon indoors and in metropolitan areas.[67]
Typicallog-normal radon distribution in dwellingsPredicted fraction of U.S. homes having concentrations of radon exceeding the EPA's recommended action level of 4 pCi/L
High concentrations of radon in homes were discovered by chance in 1984 after the stringent radiation testing conducted at the newLimerick Generating Station nuclear power plant in Montgomery County, Pennsylvania, United States revealed thatStanley Watras, a construction engineer at the plant, was contaminated by radioactive substances even though the reactor had never been fueled and Watras had been decontaminated each evening. It was determined that radon levels in his home's basement were in excess of 100,000 Bq/m3 (2.7 nCi/L); he was told that living in the home was the equivalent of smoking 135 packs of cigarettes a day, and he and his family had increased their risk of developing lung cancer by 13 or 14 percent.[89] The incident dramatized the fact that radon levels in particular dwellings can occasionally beorders of magnitude higher than typical.[90] Since the incident in Pennsylvania, millions of short-term radon measurements have been taken in homes in the United States. Outside the United States, radon measurements are typically performed over the long term.[67]
In the United States, typical domestic exposures are of approximately 100 Bq/m3 (2.7 pCi/L) indoors. Some level of radon will be found in all buildings. Radon mostly enters a building directly from the soil through the lowest level in the building that is in contact with the ground. High levels of radon in the water supply can also increase indoor radon air levels. Typical entry points of radon into buildings are cracks in solid foundations and walls, construction joints, gaps in suspended floors and around service pipes, cavities inside walls, and the water supply.[15] Radon concentrations in the same place may differ by double/half over one hour, and the concentration in one room of a building may be significantly different from the concentration in an adjoining room.[3]
The distribution of radon concentrations will generally differ from room to room, and the readings are averaged according to regulatory protocols. Indoor radon concentration is usually assumed to follow alog-normal distribution on a given territory.[91] Thus, thegeometric mean is generally used for estimating the "average" radon concentration in an area.[92] The mean concentration ranges from less than 10 Bq/m3 to over 100 Bq/m3 in some European countries.[93]
Some of the highest radon hazard in the US is found inIowa and in theAppalachian Mountain areas in southeastern Pennsylvania.[94] Iowa has the highest average radon concentrations in the US due to significantglaciation that ground the granitic rocks from theCanadian Shield and deposited it as soils making up the rich Iowa farmland.[95] Many cities within the state, such asIowa City, have passed requirements for radon-resistant construction in new homes. The second highest readings in Ireland were found in office buildings in the Irish town ofMallow, County Cork, prompting local fears regarding lung cancer.[96]
Since radon is a colorless, odorless gas, the only way to know how much is present in the air or water is to perform tests. In the US, radon test kits are available to the public at retail stores, such as hardware stores, for home use, and testing is available through licensed professionals, who are oftenhome inspectors. Efforts to reduce indoor radon levels are calledradon mitigation. In the US, the EPA recommends all houses be tested for radon. In the UK, under the Housing Health & Safety Rating System, property owners have an obligation to evaluate potential risks and hazards to health and safety in a residential property.[97] Alpha-radiation monitoring over the long term is a method of testing for radon that is more common in countries outside the United States.[67]
Radon is obtained as a by-product ofuraniferous ores processing after transferring into 1% solutions ofhydrochloric orhydrobromic acids. The gas mixture extracted from the solutions containsH 2,O 2, He, Rn,CO 2,H 2O andhydrocarbons. The mixture is purified by passing it over copper at 993 K (720 °C; 1,328 °F) to remove theH 2 and theO 2, and thenKOH andP 2O 5 are used to remove the acids and moisture bysorption. Radon is condensed by liquid nitrogen and purified from residue gases bysublimation.[98]
Radon commercialization is regulated,[citation needed] but it is available in small quantities for the calibration of222Rn measurement systems. In 2008 it was priced at almostUS$6,000 (equivalent to $8,763 in 2024) per milliliter of radium solution (which only contains about 15 picograms of actual radon at any given moment).[99] Radon is produced commercially by a solution of radium-226 (half-life of 1,600 years). Radium-226 decays by alpha-particle emission, producing radon that collects over samples of radium-226 at a rate of about 1 mm3/day per gram of radium; equilibrium is quickly achieved and radon is produced in a steady flow, with an activity equal to that of the radium (50 Bq). Gaseous222Rn (half-life of about four days) escapes from the capsule throughdiffusion.[100] Radon sources have also been produced for scientific purposes through the implantation of radium-226 into solidstainless steel.[101]
Radon concentration at the shores of large oceans is typically 1 Bq/m3.
Radon trace concentration above oceans or inAntarctica can be lower than 0.1 Bq/m3,[102] with changes in radon levels being used to track foreign pollutants.[103]
10
0.27
Mean continental concentration in the open air: 10 to 30 Bq/m3.
An EPA survey[104] of 11,000 homes across the USA found an average of 46 Bq/m3.
100
2.7
Typical indoor domestic exposure. Most countries have adopted a radon concentration of 200–400 Bq/m3 for indoor air as an Action or Reference Level.[66]
1,000
27
Very high radon concentrations (>1000 Bq/m3) have been found in houses built on soils with a high uranium content and/or high permeability of the ground. If levels are 20 picocuries radon per liter of air (800 Bq/m3) or higher, the home owner should consider some type of procedure to decrease indoor radon levels. Allowable concentrations in uranium mines are approximately 1,220 Bq/m3 (33 pCi/L)[105]
10,000
270
The concentration in the air at the (unventilated)Gastein Healing Gallery averages 43 kBq/m3 (about 1.2 nCi/L) with maximal value of 160 kBq/m3 (about 4.3 nCi/L).[81]
100,000
~2700
About 100,000 Bq/m3 (2.7 nCi/L) was measured in Stanley Watras's basement.[106]
1,000,000
27000
Concentrations reaching 1,000,000 Bq/m3 can be found in unventilated uranium mines.
~5.54 × 1019
~1.5 × 1018
Theoretical upper limit: Radon gas (222Rn) at 100% concentration (1 atmosphere, 0 °C); 1.538×105 curies/gram;[107] 5.54×1019 Bq/m3.
An early-20th-century form ofquackery was the treatment of maladies in aradiotorium.[108] It was a small, sealed room for patients to be exposed to radon for its "medicinal effects". The carcinogenic nature of radon due to its ionizing radiation became apparent later. Radon's molecule-damaging radioactivity has been used to kill cancerous cells,[109] but it does not increase the health of healthy cells.[citation needed] The ionizing radiation causes the formation offree radicals, which results incell damage, causing increased rates of illness, includingcancer.
Exposure to radon has been suggested to mitigateautoimmune diseases such asarthritis in a process known asradiation hormesis.[110][111] As a result, in the late 20th century and early 21st century, "health mines" established inBasin, Montana, attracted people seeking relief from health problems such as arthritis through limited exposure to radioactive mine water and radon. The practice is discouraged because of the well-documented ill effects of high doses of radiation on the body.[112]
Radioactive water baths have been applied since 1906 inJáchymov, Czech Republic, but even before radon discovery they were used inBad Gastein, Austria. Radium-rich springs are also used in traditional Japaneseonsen inMisasa,Tottori Prefecture. Drinking therapy is applied inBad Brambach, Germany, and during the early 20th century, water from springs with radon in them was bottled and sold (this water had little to no radon in it by the time it got to consumers due to radon's short half-life).[113] Inhalation therapy is carried out inGasteiner-Heilstollen, Austria;Świeradów-Zdrój,Czerniawa-Zdrój,Kowary,Lądek-Zdrój, Poland;Harghita Băi, Romania; andBoulder, Montana. In the US and Europe, there are several "radon spas", where people sit for minutes or hours in a high-radon atmosphere, such as atBad Schmiedeberg, Germany.[111][114]
Radon has been produced commercially for use in radiation therapy, but for the most part has been replaced by radionuclides made inparticle accelerators andnuclear reactors. Radon has been used in implantable seeds, made of gold or glass, primarily used to treat cancers, known asbrachytherapy. The gold seeds were produced by filling a long tube with radon pumped from a radium source, the tube being then divided into short sections by crimping and cutting. The gold layer keeps the radon within, and filters out the alpha and beta radiations, while allowing thegamma rays to escape (which kill the diseased tissue). The activities might range from 0.05 to 5 millicuries per seed (2 to 200 MBq).[109] The gamma rays are produced by radon and the first short-lived elements of its decay chain (218Po,214Pb,214Bi,214Po).
After 11 half-lives (42 days), radon radioactivity is at 1/2,048 of its original level. At this stage, the predominant residual activity of the seed originates from the radon decay product210Pb, whose half-life (22.3 years) is 2,000 times that of radon and its descendants210Bi and210Po.[citation needed]
Radon emanation from the soil varies with soil type and with surface uranium content, so outdoor radon concentrations can be used to trackair masses to a limited degree.[116][a] Because of radon's rapid loss to air and comparatively rapid decay, radon is used inhydrologic research that studies the interaction between groundwater andstreams. Any significant concentration of radon in a river may be an indicator that there are local inputs of groundwater.[117]
Radon soil concentration has been used to map buried close-subsurface geologicalfaults because concentrations are generally higher over the faults.[118] Similarly, it has found some limited use in prospecting forgeothermal gradients.[119]
Some researchers have investigated changes in groundwater radon concentrations forearthquake prediction.[120][121] Increases in radon were noted before the1966 Tashkent[122] and1994 Mindoro[121] earthquakes. Radon has a half-life of approximately 3.8 days, which means that it can be found only shortly after it has been produced in the radioactive decay chain. For this reason, it has been hypothesized that increases in radon concentration is due to the generation of new cracks underground, which would allow increased groundwater circulation, flushing out radon. The generation of new cracks might not unreasonably be assumed to precede major earthquakes. In the 1970s and 1980s, scientific measurements of radon emissions near faults found that earthquakes often occurred with no radon signal, and radon was often detected with no earthquake to follow. It was then dismissed by many as an unreliable indicator.[123] As of 2009, it was under investigation as a possible earthquake precursor byNASA;[9] further research into the subject has suggested that abnormalities in atmospheric radon concentrations can be an indicator of seismic movement.[124]
Radon is a known pollutant emitted fromgeothermal power stations because it is present in the material pumped from deep underground. It disperses rapidly, and no radiological hazard has been demonstrated in various investigations. In addition, typical systems re-inject the material deep underground rather than releasing it at the surface, so its environmental impact is minimal.[125] In 1989, a survey of thecollective dose received due to radon in geothermal fluids was measured at 2 man-sieverts pergigawatt-year of electricity produced, in comparison to the 2.5 man-sieverts per gigawatt-year produced from14C emissions innuclear power plants.[126]
In the 1940s and 1950s, radon produced from a radium source was used forindustrial radiography.[127] Other X-ray sources such as60Co and192Ir became available after World War II and quickly replaced radium and thus radon for this purpose, being of lower cost and hazard.[128]
222Rn decay products have been classified by theInternational Agency for Research on Cancer as beingcarcinogenic to humans,[129] and as a gas that can be inhaled, lung cancer is a particular concern for people exposed to elevated levels of radon for sustained periods. During the 1940s and 1950s, when safety standards requiring expensive ventilation in mines were not widely implemented,[130] radon exposure was linked to lung cancer among non-smoking miners of uranium and other hard rock materials in what is now the Czech Republic, and later among miners from the Southwestern US[131] andSouth Australia.[132] Despite these hazards being known in the early 1950s,[133] thisoccupational hazard remained poorly managed in many mines until the 1970s. During this period, several entrepreneurs opened former uranium mines in the US to the general public and advertised alleged health benefits from breathing radon gas underground. Health benefits claimed included relief from pain, sinus problems, asthma, and arthritis,[134] but the government banned such advertisements in 1975,[135] and subsequent works have debated the truth of such claimed health effects, citing the documented ill effects of radiation on the body.[136]
Since that time, ventilation and other measures have been used to reduce radon levels in most affected mines that continue to operate. In recent years, the average annual exposure of uranium miners has fallen to levels similar to the concentrations inhaled in some homes. This has reduced the risk of occupationally-induced cancer from radon, although health issues may persist for those who are currently employed in affected mines and for those who have been employed in them in the past.[137] As the relative risk for miners has decreased, so has the ability to detect excess risks among that population.[138]
A tailing pond nearRifle, Colorado. Waste from uranium mining has been allowed to settle and is exposed to the atmosphere, leading to the release of radon gas into the air and decay products into the groundwater.[139]
Residues from processing of uranium ore can also be a source of radon. Radon resulting from the high radium content in uncovered dumps andtailing ponds[3] can be easily released into the atmosphere and affect people living in the vicinity.[140] The release of radon may be mitigated by covering tailings with soil or clay, though other decay products may leach intogroundwater supplies.[139]
Non-uranium mines may pose higher risks of radon exposure, as workers are not continuously monitored for radiation, and regulations specific to uranium mines do not apply. A review of radon level measurements across non-uranium mines found the highest concentrations of radon in non-metal mines, such asphosphorus andsalt mines.[141] However, older or abandoned uranium mines without ventilation may still have extremely high radon levels.[142]
In addition to lung cancer, researchers have theorized a possible increased risk ofleukemia due to radon exposure. Empirical support from studies of the general population is inconsistent; a study of uranium miners found a correlation between radon exposure andchronic lymphocytic leukemia,[143] and current research supports a link between indoor radon exposure and poor health outcomes (i.e., an increased risk of lung cancer or childhoodleukemia).[144] Legal actions taken by those involved in nuclear industries, including miners, millers, transporters, nuclear site workers, and their respective unions have resulted in compensation for those affected by radon and radiation exposure under programs such as thecompensation scheme for radiation-linked diseases (in the United Kingdom)[145] and theRadiation Exposure Compensation Act (in the United States).[146]
Radon has been considered the second leading cause of lung cancer in the United States and leading environmental cause of cancer mortality by the EPA,[147] with the first one beingsmoking.[148] Others have reached similar conclusions for the United Kingdom[137] and France.[149] Radon exposure in buildings may arise from subsurface rock formations and certain building materials (e.g., some granites).[150] The greatest risk of radon exposure arises in buildings that are airtight, insufficiently ventilated, and have foundation leaks that allow air from the soil into basements and dwelling rooms.[151] In some regions, such asNiška Banja, Serbia andUllensvang, Norway, outdoor radon concentrations may be exceptionally high, though compared to indoors, where people spend more time and air is not dispersed and exchanged as often, outdoor exposure to radon is not considered a significant health risk.[152]
Radon exposure (mostly radon daughters) has been linked to lung cancer in case-control studies performed in the US, Europe and China. There are approximately 21,000 deaths per year in the US (0.0063% of a population of 333 million) due to radon-induced lung cancers.[13][153] In Europe, 2% of all cancers have been attributed to radon;[154] inSlovenia in particular, a country with a high concentration of radon, about 120 people (0.0057% of a population of 2.11 million) die yearly because of radon.[155] One of the most comprehensive radon studies performed in the US by epidemiologistR. William Field and colleagues found a 50% increased lung cancer risk even at the protracted exposures at the EPA's action level of 4 pCi/L. North American and European pooled analyses further support these findings.[151] However, the conclusion that exposure to low levels of radon leads to elevated risk of lung cancer has been disputed,[156] and analyses of the literature point towards elevated risk only when radon accumulates indoors[144] and at levels above 100 Bq/m3.[154]
Thoron (220Rn) is less studied than222Rn in regards to domestic exposure due to its shorter half-life. However, it has been measured at comparatively high concentrations in buildings with earthen architecture, such as traditionalhalf-timbered houses and modern houses withclay wall finishes,[157] and in regions with thorium- andmonazite-rich soil and sand.[158] Thoron is a minor contributor to the overall radiation dose received due to indoor radon exposure,[159] and can interfere with222Rn measurements when not taken into account.[158]
WHO presented in 2009 a recommended reference level (the national reference level), 100 Bq/m3, for radon in dwellings. The recommendation also says that where this is not possible, 300 Bq/m3 should be selected as the highest level. A national reference level should not be a limit, but should represent the maximum acceptable annual average radon concentration in a dwelling.[160]
The actionable concentration of radon in a home varies depending on the organization doing the recommendation, for example, the EPA encourages that action be taken at concentrations as low as 74 Bq/m3 (2 pCi/L),[73] and theEuropean Union recommends action be taken when concentrations reach 400 Bq/m3 (11 pCi/L) for old houses and 200 Bq/m3 (5 pCi/L) for new ones.[161] On 8 July 2010, the UK's Health Protection Agency issued new advice setting a "Target Level" of 100 Bq/m3 whilst retaining an "Action Level" of 200 Bq/m3.[162] Similar levels (as in the UK) are published by Norwegian Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority (DSA)[163] with the maximum limit for schools, kindergartens, and new dwellings set at 200 Bq/m3, where 100 Bq/m3 is set as the action level.[164]
Results from epidemiological studies indicate that the risk of lung cancer increases with exposure to residential radon. A well known example of source of error is smoking, the main risk factor for lung cancer. In the US, cigarette smoking is estimated to cause 80% to 90% of all lung cancers.[165]
According to the EPA, the risk of lung cancer for smokers is significant due tosynergistic effects of radon and smoking. For this population about 62 people in a total of 1,000 will die of lung cancer compared to 7 people in a total of 1,000 for people who have never smoked.[13] It cannot be excluded that the risk of non-smokers should be primarily explained by an effect of radon.
Radon, like other known or suspected external risk factors for lung cancer, is a threat for smokers and former smokers. This was demonstrated by the European pooling study.[166] A commentary[166] to the pooling study stated: "it is not appropriate to talk simply of a risk from radon in homes. The risk is from smoking, compounded by a synergistic effect of radon for smokers. Without smoking, the effect seems to be so small as to be insignificant."
According to the European pooling study, there is a difference in risk for thehistological subtypes of lung cancer and radon exposure.Small-cell lung carcinoma, which has a high correlation with smoking, has a higher risk after radon exposure. For other histological subtypes such asadenocarcinoma, the type that primarily affects non-smokers, the risk from radon appears to be lower.[166][167]
A study of radiation from post-mastectomyradiotherapy shows that the simple models previously used to assess the combined and separate risks from radiation and smoking need to be developed.[168] This is also supported by new discussion about the calculation method, thelinear no-threshold model, which routinely has been used.[169]
A study from 2001, which included 436 non-smokers with lung cancer and a control group of 1649 non-smokers without lung cancer, showed that exposure to radon increased the risk of lung cancer in non-smokers. The group that had been exposed to tobacco smoke in the home appeared to have a much higher risk, while those who were not exposed to passive smoking did not show any increased risk with increasing radon exposure.[170]
The effects of radon if ingested are unknown, although studies have found that its biological half-life ranges from 30 to 70 minutes, with 90% removal at 100 minutes. In 1999, the USNational Research Council investigated the issue of radon in drinking water. The risk associated with ingestion was considered almost negligible;[171] Water from underground sources may contain significant amounts of radon depending on the surrounding rock and soil conditions, whereas surface sources generally do not.[172] Radon is also released from water when temperature is increased, pressure is decreased and when water is aerated. Optimum conditions for radon release and exposure in domestic living from water occurred during showering. Water with a radon concentration of 104 pCi/L can increase the indoor airborne radon concentration by 1 pCi/L under normal conditions.[78] However, the concentration of radon released from contaminated groundwater to the air has been measured at 5 orders of magnitude less than the original concentration in water.[173]
Ocean surface concentrations of radon exchange within the atmosphere, causing222Rn to increase through the air-sea interface.[174] Although areas tested were very shallow, additional measurements in a wide variety of coastal regimes should help define the nature of222Rn observed.
There are relatively simple tests for radon gas. In some countries these tests are methodically done in areas of known systematic hazards. Radon detection devices are commercially available. Digital radon detectors provide ongoing measurements giving both daily, weekly, short-term and long-term average readouts via a digital display. Short-term radon test devices used for initial screening purposes are inexpensive, in some cases free. There are important protocols for taking short-term radon tests and it is imperative that they be strictly followed. The kit includes a collector that the user hangs in the lowest habitable floor of the house for two to seven days. The user then sends the collector to a laboratory for analysis. Long term kits, taking collections for up to one year or more, are also available. An open-land test kit can test radon emissions from the land before construction begins.[13] Radon concentrations can vary daily, and accurate radon exposure estimates require long-term average radon measurements in the spaces where an individual spends a significant amount of time.[175]
Radon levels fluctuate naturally, due to factors like transient weather conditions, so an initial test might not be an accurate assessment of a home's average radon level. Radon levels are at a maximum during the coolest part of the day when pressure differentials are greatest.[78] Therefore, a high result (over 4 pCi/L) justifies repeating the test before undertaking more expensive abatement projects. Measurements between 4 and 10 pCi/L warrant a long-term radon test. Measurements over 10 pCi/L warrant only another short-term test so that abatement measures are not unduly delayed. The EPA has advised purchasers of real estate to delay or decline a purchase if the seller has not successfully abated radon to 4 pCi/L or less.[13]
Because the half-life of radon is only 3.8 days, removing or isolating the source will greatly reduce the hazard within a few weeks. Another method of reducing radon levels is to modify the building's ventilation. Generally, the indoor radon concentrations increase as ventilation rates decrease.[3] In a well-ventilated place, the radon concentration tends to align with outdoor values (typically 10 Bq/m3, ranging from 1 to 100 Bq/m3).[13]
The four principal ways of reducing the amount of radon accumulating in a house are:[13][176]
Sub-slab depressurization (soil suction) by increasing under-floor ventilation;
Improving the ventilation of the house and avoiding the transport of radon from the basement into living rooms;
Installing a radon sump system in the basement;
Installing a positive pressurization or positive supply ventilation system.
According to the EPA, the method to reduce radon "...primarily used is a vent pipe system and fan, which pulls radon from beneath the house and vents it to the outside", which is also called sub-slab depressurization, active soil depressurization, or soil suction.[13] Generally indoor radon can be mitigated by sub-slab depressurization and exhausting such radon-laden air to the outdoors, away from windows and other building openings. "[The] EPA generally recommends methods which prevent the entry of radon. Soil suction, for example, prevents radon from entering your home by drawing the radon from below the home and venting it through a pipe, or pipes, to the air above the home where it is quickly diluted" and the "EPA does not recommend the use of sealing alone to reduce radon because, by itself, sealing has not been shown to lower radon levels significantly or consistently".[177]
Positive-pressure ventilation systems can be combined with aheat exchanger to recover energy in the process of exchanging air with the outside, and simply exhausting basement air to the outside is not necessarily a viable solution as this can actually draw radon gas into a dwelling. Homes built on a crawl space may benefit from a radon collector installed under a "radon barrier" (a sheet of plastic that covers the crawl space).[13][178] For crawl spaces, the EPA states that "[a]n effective method to reduce radon levels in crawl space homes involves covering the earth floor with a high-density plastic sheet. A vent pipe and fan are used to draw the radon from under the sheet and vent it to the outdoors. This form of soil suction is called submembrane suction, and when properly applied is the most effective way to reduce radon levels in crawl space homes."[177]
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