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Sindh and surrounding areas contain the ruins of theIndus Valley Civilization. There are remnants of thousand-year-old cities and structures, with a notable example in Sindh being that ofMohenjo Daro. Built around 2500 BC, it was one of the largest settlements of the ancient Indus civilization, with features such as standardized bricks, street grids, and covered sewerage systems.[20][21] It was one of the world's earliest majorcities, contemporaneous with the civilizations ofancient Egypt,Mesopotamia,Minoan Crete, andCaral-Supe. Mohenjo-daro was abandoned in the 19th century BC as the Indus Valley Civilization declined, and the site was not rediscovered until the 1920s. Significant excavation has since been conducted at the site of the city, which was designated a UNESCOWorld Heritage Site in 1980.[22] The site is currently threatened by erosion and improper restoration.[23] A gradualdrying of the region during the 3rd millennium BC may have been the initial stimulus for its urbanisation.[24] Eventually it also reduced the water supply enough to cause the civilisation's demise and to disperse its population to the east.[d]
During theBronze Age, the territory of Sindh was known asSindhu-Sauvīra, covering the lowerIndus Valley,[25] with its southern border being theIndian Ocean and its northern border being thePañjāb aroundMultān.[26] The capital of Sindhu-Sauvīra was named Roruka and Vītabhaya or Vītībhaya, and corresponds to the mediaevalArohṛ and the modern-dayRohṛī.[26][27][28] TheAchaemenids conquered the region and established the satrapy ofHindush. The territory may have corresponded to the area covering the lower and centralIndus basin (present day Sindh and the southernPunjab regions of Pakistan).[29] Alternatively, some authors consider thatHindush may have been located in thePunjab area.[30] These areas remained under Persian control until theinvasion by Alexander.[31]
Alexander conquered parts of Sindh after Punjab for few years and appointed his generalPeithon as governor. He constructed a harbour at the city ofPatala in Sindh.[32][33]Chandragupta Maurya fought Alexander's successor in the east,Seleucus I Nicator, when the latter invaded. In a peace treaty, Seleucus ceded all territories west of theIndus River and offered a marriage, including a portion ofBactria, while Chandragupta granted Seleucus 500 elephants.[34]
Following a century of Mauryan rule which ended by 180 BC, the region came under theIndo-Greeks, followed by theIndo Scythians, who ruled with their capital atMinnagara.[35] Later on,Sasanian rulers from the reign ofShapur I claimed control of the Sindh area in their inscriptions, known asHind.[36][37]
The localRai dynasty emerged from Sindh and reigned for a period of 144 years, concurrent with theHuna invasions of North India.[38]Aror was noted to be the capital.[38][39] TheBrahmin dynasty of Sindh succeeded theRai dynasty.[40][41][42][43] Most of the information about its existence comes from theChach Nama, a historical account of the Chach-Brahmin dynasty.[44] After the empire's fall in 712, though the empire had ended, its dynasty's members administered parts of Sindh under the Umayyad Caliphate'sCaliphal province of Sind.[45]
After the death of the Islamic prophetMuhammad, the Arab expansion towards the east reached the Sindh region beyondPersia.[46] The connection between the Sindh andIslam was established by the initial Muslim invasions during theRashidun Caliphate. Al-Hakim ibn Jabalah al-Abdi, who attackedMakran in the year 649, was an early partisan ofAli ibn Abu Talib.[47] During the caliphate of Ali, many Jats of Sindh had come under the influence of Shi'ism[48] and some even participated in theBattle of Camel and died fighting forAli.[47] Under the Umayyads (661–750), many Shias sought asylum in the region of Sindh, to live in relative peace in the remote area. Ziyad Hindi is one of those refugees.[49] The first clash with theHindu kings of Sindh took place in 636 (15 AH) under CaliphUmar ibn al-Khattab with the governor of Bahrain,Uthman ibn Abu-al-Aas, dispatching naval expeditions againstThane andBharuch andDebal.[50]Al-Baladhuri states they were victorious at Debal but doesn't mention the results of other two raids. However, theChach Nama states that the raid of Debal was defeated and its governor killed the leader of the raids.[51] These raids were thought to be triggered by a later pirate attack on Umayyad ships.[52] Baladhuri adds that this stopped any more incursions until the reign ofUthman.[53]
In 712,Mohammed Bin Qasim defeated theBrahmin dynasty andannexed it to the Umayyad Caliphate. This marked the beginning of Islam in the Indian subcontinent. TheHabbari dynasty ruled much of Greater Sindh, as a semi-independentemirate from 854 to 1024. Beginning with the rule of 'Umar bin Abdul Aziz al-Habbari in 854, the region became semi-independent from theAbbasid Caliphate in 861, while continuing to nominally pledge allegiance to the Abbasid Caliph inBaghdad.[54][55] The Habbaris ruled Sindh until they were defeated bySultanMahmud Ghaznavi in 1026, who then went on to destroy the old Habbari capital of Mansura, and annex the region to theGhaznavid Empire, thereby ending Arab rule of Sindh.[56][57]
TheSoomra dynasty was a local Sindhi Muslim dynasty that ruled between early 11th century and the 14th century.[58][59][60] Later chroniclers likeAli ibn al-Athir (c. late 12th c.) andIbn Khaldun (c. late 14th c.) attributed the fall of Habbarids to Mahmud of Ghazni, lending credence to the argument of Hafif being the last Habbarid.[61] The Soomras appear to have established themselves as a regional power in this power vacuum.[61][62] TheGhurids andGhaznavids continued to rule parts of Sindh, across the eleventh and early twelfth century, alongside Soomrus.[61] The precise delineations are not yet known but Sommrus were probably centered in lower Sindh.[61] Some of them were adherents ofIsma'ilism.[62] One of their kings Shimuddin Chamisar had submitted toIltutmish, theSultan of Delhi, and was allowed to continue on as a vassal.[63]
TheSammas overthrew the Soomras soon after 1335 and established the Sindh Sultanate. The last Soomra ruler took shelter with the governor ofGujarat, under the protection ofMuhammad bin Tughluq, thesultan of Delhi.[65][66][67] Mohammad bin Tughlaq made an expedition against Sindh in 1351 and died at Sondha, possibly in an attempt to restore the Soomras. With this, the Sammas became independent. The next sultan,Firuz Shah Tughlaq attacked Sindh in 1365 and 1367, unsuccessfully, but with reinforcements fromDelhi he later obtained Banbhiniyo's surrender. For a period the Sammas were therefore subject to Delhi again. Later, as the Sultanate of Delhi collapsed they became fully independent.[68] Jam Unar was the founder of Samma dynasty mentioned byIbn Battuta.[68] The Samma civilization contributed significantly to the evolution of theIndo-Islamic architectural style. Thatta is famous for its necropolis, which covers 10 square km on theMakli Hill.[69] It has left its mark in Sindh with magnificent structures including theMakli Necropolis of its royals in Thatta.[70][71] They were later overthrown by the TurkicArghuns in the late 15th century.[72][73]
Elaborately illustrated map of the Thatta Subah of the Mughal Empire, commissioned by Jean Baptiste Joseph Gentil, ca.1770
In the late 16th century, Sindh was brought into theMughal Empire byAkbar, himself born in theRajputana kingdom inUmerkot in Sindh.[74][75] Mughal rule from their provincial capital ofThatta was to last in lower Sindh until the early 18th century, while upper Sindh was ruled by the indigenousKalhora dynasty holding power, consolidating their rule from their capital ofKhudabad, before shifting toHyderabad from 1768 onwards.[76][77][78]
TheTalpurs succeeded the Kalhoras and four branches of the dynasty were established.[79] One ruled lower Sindh from the city ofHyderabad, another ruled over upper Sindh from the city ofKhairpur, a third ruled around the eastern city ofMirpur Khas, and a fourth was based inTando Muhammad Khan. They were ethnicallyBaloch,[80] and for most of their rule, they were subordinate to theDurrani Empire and were forced to pay tribute to them.[81][82]
They ruled from 1783, until 1843, when they were in turn defeated by theBritish at theBattle of Miani andBattle of Dubbo.[83] The northern Khairpur branch of the Talpur dynasty, however, continued to maintain a degree of sovereignty during British rule as theprincely state of Khairpur,[80] whose ruler elected to join the newDominion of Pakistan in October 1947 as an autonomous region, before being fully amalgamated intoWest Pakistan in 1955.
TheBritish conquered Sindh in 1843. GeneralCharles Napier is said to have reported victory to the Governor General with a one-word telegram, namely"Peccavi" – or"I have sinned" (Latin).[84] The British had two objectives in their rule of Sindh: the consolidation of British rule and the use of Sindh as a market for British products and a source of revenue and raw materials. With the appropriate infrastructure in place, the British hoped to utilise Sindh for its economic potential.[85] The British incorporated Sindh, some years later after annexing it, into theBombay Presidency. Distance from the provincial capital, Bombay, led to grievances that Sindh was neglected in contrast to other parts of the Presidency. The merger of Sindh into Punjab province was considered from time to time but was turned down because of British disagreement and Sindhi opposition, both from Muslims and Hindus, to being annexed to Punjab.[85]
Later, desire for a separate administrative status for Sindh grew. At the annual session of the Indian National Congress in 1913, a Sindhi Hindu put forward the demand for Sindh's separation from the Bombay Presidency on the grounds of Sindh's unique cultural character. This reflected the desire of Sindh's predominantly Hindu commercial class to free itself from competing with the more powerful Bombay's business interests.[85] Meanwhile, Sindhi politics was characterised in the 1920s by the growing importance of Karachi and the Khilafat Movement.[86] A number of Sindhi pirs, descendants of Sufi saints who had proselytised in Sindh, joined the Khilafat Movement, which propagated the protection of the Ottoman Caliphate, and those pirs who did not join the movement found a decline in their following.[87] The pirs generated huge support for the Khilafat cause in Sindh.[88] Sindh came to be at the forefront of theKhilafat Movement.[89]
Although Sindh had a cleaner record of communal harmony than other parts of India, the province's Muslim elite and emerging Muslim middle class demanded separation of Sindh from Bombay Presidency as a safeguard for their own interests. In this campaign, local Sindhi Muslims identified 'Hindu' with Bombay instead of Sindh. Sindhi Hindus were seen as representing the interests of Bombay instead of the majority of Sindhi Muslims. Sindhi Hindus, for the most part, opposed the separation of Sindh from Bombay.[85] Although Sindh had a culture of religious syncretism, communal harmony and tolerance due to Sindh's strongSufi culture in which both Sindhi Muslims and Sindhi Hindus partook,[90] both the Muslim landed elite,waderas, and the Hindu commercial elements,banias, collaborated in oppressing the predominantly Muslim peasantry of Sindh who were economically exploited.[91] Sindhi Muslims eventually demanded the separation of Sindh from the Bombay Presidency, a move opposed by Sindhi Hindus.[88][92][93]
In Sindh's first provincial election after its separation from Bombay in 1936, economic interests were an essential factor of politics informed by religious and cultural issues.[94] Due to British policies, much land in Sindh was transferred from Muslim to Hindu hands over the decades.[95] Religious tensions rose in Sindh over the Sukkur Manzilgah issue where Muslims and Hindus disputed over an abandoned mosque in proximity to an area sacred to Hindus. The Sindh Muslim League exploited the issue and agitated for the return of the mosque to Muslims. Consequentially, a thousand members of the Muslim League were imprisoned. Eventually, due to panic the government restored the mosque to Muslims.[94] The separation of Sindh from Bombay Presidency triggered Sindhi Muslim nationalists to support the Pakistan Movement. Even while the Punjab and North-West Frontier Province were ruled by parties hostile to the Muslim League, Sindh remained loyal to Jinnah.[96] Although the prominent Sindhi Muslim nationalistG. M. Syed left the All India Muslim League in the mid-1940s and his relationship with Jinnah never improved, the overwhelming majority of Sindhi Muslims supported the creation of Pakistan, seeing in it their deliverance.[86] Sindhi support for the Pakistan Movement arose from the desire of the Sindhi Muslim business class to drive out their Hindu competitors.[97] The Muslim League's rise to becoming the party with the strongest support in Sindh was in large part linked to its winning over of the religious pir families.[98] Although the Muslim League had previously fared poorly in the 1937 elections in Sindh, when local Sindhi Muslim parties won more seats,[98] the Muslim League's cultivation of support from local pirs in 1946 helped it gain a foothold in the province,[99] it didn't take long for the overwhelming majority of Sindhi Muslims to campaign for the creation of Pakistan.[100][101]
In 1947, violence did not constitute a major part of the Sindhi partition experience, unlike in Punjab. There were very few incidents of violence on Sindh, in part due to the Sufi-influenced culture of religious tolerance and in part that Sindh was not divided and was instead made part of Pakistan in its entirety. Sindhi Hindus who left generally did so out of a fear of persecution, rather than persecution itself, because of the arrival of Muslim refugees from India. Sindhi Hindus differentiated between the local Sindhi Muslims and the migrant Muslims from India. A large number of Sindhi Hindus travelled to India by sea, to the ports of Bombay, Porbandar, Veraval and Okha.[102]
Islam in Sindh has a long history, starting with the capture of Sindh by Muhammad Bin Qasim in 712. Over time, the majority of the population in Sindh converted to Islam, especially in rural areas. Today, Muslims make up 90% of the population, and are more dominant in urban than rural areas. Islam in Sindh has a strong Sufi ethos with numerous Muslim saints and mystics, such as the Sufi poetShah Abdul Latif Bhittai, having lived in Sindh historically. One popular legend that highlights the strong Sufi presence in Sindh is that 125,000 Sufi saints and mystics are buried onMakli Hill nearThatta.[113] The development of Sufism in Sindh was similar to the development of Sufism in other parts of the Muslim world. In the sixteenth century two Sufitareeqat (orders) – Qadria and Naqshbandia – were introduced in Sindh.[114] Sufism continues to play an important role in the daily lives of Sindhis.[115]
In 1941, the last census conducted prior to the partition of India, the total population of Sindh was 4,840,795 out of which 3,462,015 (71.5%) were Muslims, 1,279,530 (26.4%) were Hindus and the remaining were Tribals, Sikhs, Christians, Parsis, Jains, Jews, and Buddhists.[104]: 28 [116]
Sindh also has Pakistan's highest percentage ofHindus overall, accounting for 8.8% of the population, roughly around 4.9 million people,[117] and 13.3% of the province's rural population as per 2023 Pakistani census report. These numbers also include thescheduled caste population, which stands at 1.7% of the total in Sindh (or 3.1% in rural areas),[118] and is believed to have been under-reported, with some community members instead counted under the main Hindu category.[119] Although,Pakistan Hindu Council claimed that there are 6,842,526 Hindus living in Sindh Province covering around 14.29% of the region's population.[120] Umerkot district in the Thar Desert is Pakistan's only Hindu-majority district. TheShri Ramapir Temple in Tandoallahyar whose annual festival is the second largest Hindu pilgrimage in Pakistan is in Sindh.[121] Sindh is also the only province in Pakistan to have a separate law for governingHindu marriages.[122]
2020 community estimates indicated the Sikh population in Sindh stood at approximately 10,000,[123] while the 2023 census indicated a population of 5,182 Sikhs.[124]
Karachi city is Sindh's most multiethnic city which hosts most of the province's Urdu-speaking population who form a plurality, along many other groups.[132]
Sindh is in the western corner of South Asia, bordering theIranian plateau in the west. Geographically it is the third largest province of Pakistan, stretching about 579 kilometres (360 mi) from north to south and 442 kilometres (275 mi) (extreme) or 281 kilometres (175 mi) (average) from east to west, with an area of 140,915 square kilometres (54,408 sq mi) of Pakistani territory. Sindh is bounded by theThar Desert to the east, theKirthar Mountains to the west and theArabian Sea andRann of Kutch to the south. In the centre is a fertile plain along theIndus River.
Sindh is divided into three main geographical regions:Siro ("upper country"), aka Upper Sindh, which is aboveSehwan;Vicholo ("middle country"), or Middle Sindh, from Sehwan toHyderabad; andLāṟu ("sloping, descending country"), or Lower Sindh, mostly consisting of theIndus Delta below Hyderabad.[133]
The province is mostly arid with scant vegetation except for the irrigated Indus Valley. The dwarf palm,Acacia rupestris (kher), andTecomella undulata (lohirro) trees are typical of the western hill region. In the Indus valley, theAcacia nilotica (babul) (babbur) is the most dominant and occurs in thick forests along the Indus banks. TheAzadirachta indica (neem) (nim),Zizyphys vulgaris (bir) (ber),Tamarix orientalis (jujuba lai) andCapparis aphylla (kirir) are among the more common trees.
Mango, date palms and the more recently introduced banana, guava, orange andchiku are the typical fruit-bearing trees. The coastal strip and the creeks abound in semi-aquatic and aquatic plants and the inshore Indus delta islands have forests ofAvicennia tomentosa (timmer) andCeriops candolleana (chaunir) trees. Water lilies grow in abundance in the numerous lakes and ponds, particularly in the lower Sindh region.[citation needed]
Among the wild animals, theSindh ibex (sareh),blackbuck, wild sheep (Urial or gadh) andwild bear are found in the western rocky range. Theleopard is now rare and theAsiatic cheetah extinct. ThePirrang (large tiger cat or fishing cat) of the eastern desert region is also disappearing.Deer occur in the lower rocky plains and in the eastern region, as do theStriped hyena (charakh),jackal,fox,porcupine,common gray mongoose andhedgehog. The Sindhi phekari, red lynx or Caracal cat, is found in some areas. Phartho (hog deer) and wild bear occur, particularly in the central inundation belt. There are bats, lizards and reptiles, including the cobra, lundi (viper) and the mysterious Sindhkrait of the Thar region, which is supposed to suck the victim's breath in his sleep.Some unusual sightings of Asian cheetah occurred in 2003 near theBalochistan border inKirthar Mountains. The rareHoubara bustard finds Sindh's warm climate suitable to rest and mate. Unfortunately, it is hunted by locals and foreigners.
Crocodiles are rare and inhabit only the backwaters of the Indus, eastern Nara channel and Karachi backwater. Besides a large variety of marine fish, the plumbeous dolphin, the beaked dolphin, rorqual or blue whale and skates frequent the seas along the Sindh coast. The Pallo (Sable fish), a marine fish, ascends the Indus annually from February to April to spawn. TheIndus river dolphin is among the most endangered species in Pakistan and is found in the part of the Indus river in northern Sindh.Hog deer andwild bear occur, particularly in the central inundation belt.
Although Sindh has asemi arid climate, through its coastal and riverine forests, its huge fresh water lakes and mountains and deserts, Sindh supports a large amount of varied wildlife. Due to the semi-aridclimate of Sindh the left out forests support an average population of jackals and snakes. Thenational parks established by the Government of Pakistan in collaboration with many organizations such asWorld Wide Fund for Nature andSindh Wildlife Department support a huge variety of animals and birds. TheKirthar National Park in the Kirthar range spreads over more than 3000 km2 of desert, stunted tree forests and a lake. The KNP supportsSindh ibex,wild sheep (urial) andblack bear along with the rare leopard. There are also occasional sightings of The Sindhi phekari, ped lynx or Caracal cat. There is a project to introducetigers andAsian elephants too in KNP near the huge Hub Dam Lake. Between July and November when themonsoon winds blow onshore from the ocean, giantolive ridley turtles lay their eggs along the seaward side. The turtles are protected species. After the mothers lay and leave them buried under the sands the SWD and WWF officials take the eggs and protect them until they are hatched to keep them from predators.
Sindh lies in atropical tosubtropical region; it is hot in the summer and mild to warm in winter. Temperatures frequently rise above 46 °C (115 °F) between May and August, and the minimum average temperature of 2 °C (36 °F) occurs during December and January in the northern and higher elevated regions. The annual rainfall averages about seven inches, falling mainly during July and August. The southwest monsoon wind begins in mid-February and continues until the end of September, whereas the cool northerly wind blows during the winter months from October to January.
Sindh lies between the twomonsoons—the southwest monsoon from the Indian Ocean and the northeast or retreating monsoon, deflected towards it by theHimalayan mountains—and escapes the influence of both. The region's scarcity of rainfall is compensated by the inundation of the Indus twice a year, caused by the spring and summer melting of Himalayan snow and by rainfall in the monsoon season.
Sindh is divided into three climatic regions: Siro (the upper region, centred onJacobabad), Wicholo (the middle region, centred onHyderabad), and Lar (the lower region, centred onKarachi). Thethermal equator passes through upper Sindh, where the air is generally very dry. Central Sindh's temperatures are generally lower than those of upper Sindh but higher than those of lower Sindh. Dry hot days and cool nights are typical during the summer. Central Sindh's maximum temperature typically reaches 43–44 °C (109–111 °F). Lower Sindh has a damper and humid maritime climate affected by the southwestern winds in summer and northeastern winds in winter, with lowerrainfall than Central Sindh. Lower Sindh's maximum temperature reaches about 35–38 °C (95–100 °F). In the Kirthar range at 1,800 m (5,900 ft) and higher atGorakh Hill and other peaks inDadu District, temperatures near freezing have been recorded and brief snowfall is received in the winters.
In metropolitan cities such asKarachi andHyderabad, theMQM (another party of the left with the support ofMuhajirs) has a considerable vote bank and support.[140] Minor leftist parties such as thePeople's Movement also found support in rural areas of the province.[142]
In 2008, after the public elections, the new government decided to restore the structure of Divisions of all provinces.[143] In Sindh after the lapse of the Local Governments Bodies term in 2010 the Divisional Commissioners system was to be restored.[144][145][146]
In July 2011, following excessiveviolence in the city of Karachi and after the political split between the ruling PPP and the majority party in Sindh, the MQM and after the resignation of the MQM Governor of Sindh, PPP and the Government of Sindh decided to restore the commissionerate system in the province. As a consequence, the five divisions of Sindh were restored – namely Karachi, Hyderabad, Sukkur, Mirpurkhas and Larkana with their respective districts. Subsequently, a new division was added in Sindh, the Nawab Shah/Shaheed Benazirabad division.[147]
A view of Karachi downtown, the capital of Sindh province
Theeconomy of Sindh is the2nd largest of all the provinces inPakistan. Much of Sindh's economy is influenced by theeconomy of Karachi, the largest city and economic capital of the country. Historically, Sindh's contribution to Pakistan's GDP has been between 30% and 32.7%. Its share in the service sector has ranged from 21% to 27.8% and in the agriculture sector from 21.4% to 27.7%. Performance-wise, its best sector is the manufacturing sector, where its share has ranged from 36.7% to 46.5%.[152] Since 1972, Sindh's GDP has expanded by 3.6 times.[153]
GDP by province
Endowed with coastal access, Sindh is a major centre of economic activity in Pakistan and has a highly diversified economy ranging fromheavy industry and finance centred in and around Karachi to a substantial agricultural base along theIndus. Manufacturing includes machine products, cement, plastics, and various other goods.
Sindh is the richest province in natural resources of gas, petrol, and coal. The Mari Gas field is the biggest producer of natural gas in the country, with companies likeMari Petroleum.[156]Thar coalfield also includes a largelignite deposit.[156]
Qayoom Abad Bridge KarachiNavalrai Market Clock Tower HyderabadSukkur skyline along the shores of the River Indus
The rich culture, art and architectural landscape of Sindh have fascinated historians. The culture, folktales, art and music of Sindh form a mosaic of human history.[170]
Archaeological ruins at Moenjodaro, Sindh, PakistanThe ruins of an ancient mosque atBhamboreSindhi women collecting water from a reservoir on the way to Mubarak Village
The work of Sindhi artisans was sold in ancient markets of Damascus, Baghdad, Basra, Istanbul, Cairo and Samarkand. Referring to the lacquer work on wood locally known as Jandi, T. Posten (an English traveller who visited Sindh in the early 19th century) asserted that the articles of Hala could be compared with exquisite specimens of China. Technological improvements such as the spinning wheel (charkha) and treadle (pai-chah) in the weaver's loom were gradually introduced and the processes of designing, dyeing and printing by block were refined. The refined, lightweight, colourful, washable fabrics from Hala became a luxury for people used to the woollens and linens of the age.[171]
Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) such as the World Wildlife Fund, Pakistan, play an important role to promote the culture of Sindh. They provide training to women artisans in Sindh so they get a source of income. They promote their products under the name of "Crafts Forever". Many women in rural Sindh are skilled in the production of caps. Sindhi caps are manufactured commercially on a small scale at New Saeedabad and Hala New. Sindhi people began celebrating Sindhi Topi Day on 6 December 2009, to preserve the historical culture of Sindh by wearing Ajrak and Sindhi topi.[172]
The province includes a number of important historical sites. TheIndus Valley civilization (IVC) was aBronze Agecivilization (mature period 2600–1900 BC) which was centred mostly in the Sindh.[173] Sindh has numerous tourist sites with the most prominent being the ruins ofMohenjo-daro near the city ofLarkana.[173] Islamic architecture is quite prominent as well as colonial and post-partition sites. Natural sites, likeManchar Lake have increasingly been a source ofsustainable tourism in the province.[174]
^Brooke (2014), p. 296. "The story in Harappan India was somewhat different (see Figure 111.3). The Bronze Age village and urban societies of the Indus Valley are some-thing of an anomaly, in that archaeologists have found little indication of local defense and regional warfare. It would seem that the bountiful monsoon rainfall of the Early to Mid-Holocene had forged a condition of plenty for all, and that competitive energies were channeled into commerce rather than conflict. Scholars have long argued that these rains shaped the origins of the urban Harappan societies, which emerged from Neolithic villages around 2600 BC. It now appears that this rainfall began to slowly taper off in the third millennium, at just the point that the Harappan cities began to develop. Thus it seems that this "first urbanisation" in South Asia was the initial response of the Indus Valley peoples to the beginning of Late Holocene aridification. These cities were maintained for 300 to 400 years and then gradually abandoned as the Harappan peoples resettled in scattered villages in the eastern range of their territories, into the Punjab and the Ganges Valley....' 17 (footnote): (a)Giosan et al. (2012); (b)Ponton et al. (2012); (c)Rashid et al. (2011); (d)Madella & Fuller (2006); Compare with the very different interpretations in (e)Possehl (2002), pp. 237–245 (f)Staubwasser et al. (2003)
^"Archaeological Ruins at Moanjodaro".The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) website. Retrieved6 September 2014.
^Nicholas F. Gier,FROM MONGOLS TO MUGHALS: RELIGIOUS VIOLENCE IN INDIA 9TH-18TH CENTURIES, presented at the Pacific Northwest Regional Meeting American Academy of Religion, Gonzaga University, May 2006[1]. Retrieved 11 December 2006.
^Naik, C.D. (2010).Buddhism and Dalits: Social Philosophy and Traditions. Delhi: Kalpaz Publications. p. 32.ISBN978-81-7835-792-8.
^P. 164Notes on the religious, moral, and political state of India before the Mahomedan invasion, chiefly founded on the travels of the Chinese Buddhist priest Fai Han in India, AD 399, and on the commentaries of Messrs. Remusat, Klaproth and Burnouf, Lieutenant-Colonel W.H. Sykes by Sykes, Colonel;
^abMacLean, Derryl N. (1989), Religion and Society in Arab Sind, pp. 126, BRILL,ISBN90-04-08551-3
^S. A. A. Rizvi, "A socio-intellectual History of Isna Ashari Shi'is in India", Volo. 1, pp. 138, Mar'ifat Publishing House, Canberra (1986).
^S. A. N. Rezavi, "The Shia Muslims", in History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, Vol. 2, Part. 2: "Religious Movements and Institutions in Medieval India", Chapter 13, Oxford University Press (2006).
^"The Arab Conquest".International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics.36 (1): 91. 2007.The Soomras are believed to be Parmar Rajputs found even today in Rajasthan, Saurashtra, Kutch and Sindh. The Cambridge History of India refers to the Soomras as "a Rajput dynasty the later members of which accepted Islam" (p. 54 ).
^Dani, Ahmad Hasan (2007).History of Pakistan: Pakistan through ages. Sang-e Meel Publications. p. 218.ISBN978-969-35-2020-0.But as many kings of the dynasty bore Hindu names, it is almost certain that the Soomras were of local origin. Sometimes they are connected with Paramara Rajputs, but of this there is no definite proof.
^abcdCollinet, Annabelle (2008). "Chronology of Sehwan Sharif through Ceramics (The Islamic Period)". In Boivin, Michel (ed.).Sindh through history and representations : French contributions to Sindhi studies. Karachi: Oxford University Press. pp. 9, 11, 113 (note 43).ISBN978-0-19-547503-6.
^abBoivin, Michel (2008). "Shivaite Cults And Sufi Centres: A Reappraisal Of The Medieval Legacy In Sindh". In Boivin, Michel (ed.).Sindh through history and representations : French contributions to Sindhi studies. Karachi: Oxford University Press. p. 30.ISBN978-0-19-547503-6.
^U. M. Chokshi; M. R. Trivedi (1989).Gujarat State Gazetteer. Director, Government Print., Stationery and Publications, Gujarat State. p. 274.It was the conquest of Kutch by the Sindhi tribe of Sama Rajputs that marked the emergence of Kutch as a separate kingdom in the 14th century.
^Verkaaik, Oskar (2004).Migrants and Militants: Fun and Urban Violence in Pakistan. Princeton University Press. pp. 94, 99.ISBN978-0-69111-709-6.The area of the Hindu-built mansion Pakka Qila was built in 1768 by the Kalhora kings, a local dynasty of Arab origin that ruled Sindh independently from the decaying Moghul Empire beginning in the mid-eighteenth century.
^General Napier apocryphally reported his conquest of the province to his superiors with the one-word messagepeccavi, a schoolgirl's pun recorded inPunch (magazine) relying on the Latin word's meaning, "I have sinned", homophonous to "I have Sindh".Eugene Ehrlich,Nil Desperandum: A Dictionary of Latin Tags and Useful Phrases[Original title:Amo, Amas, Amat and More], BCA 1992 [1985], p. 175.
^Priya Kumar & Rita Kothari (2016) Sindh, 1947 and Beyond,South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies, 39:4, 776–777, DOI: 10.1080/00856401.2016.1244752
^Rehman, Zia Ur (18 August 2015)."With a handful of subbers, two newspapers barely keeping Gujarati alive in Karachi".The News International. Retrieved13 January 2017.In Pakistan, the majority of Gujarati-speaking communities are in Karachi including Dawoodi Bohras, Ismaili Khojas, Memons, Kathiawaris, Katchhis, Parsis (Zoroastrians) and Hindus, said Gul Hasan Kalmati, a researcher who authored "Karachi, Sindh Jee Marvi", a book discussing the city and its indigenous communities. Although there are no official statistics available, community leaders claim that there are three million Gujarati-speakers in Karachi – roughly around 15 percent of the city's entire population.
^Khan, Tariq Shafiq (2009).Pakistan 2008 Mouza Statistics(PDF). Government of Pakistan: Statistics Division - Agricultural Census Organization. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 12 June 2021. Retrieved15 May 2021.
Dani, A.H. (1981). "Sindhu – Sauvira : A glimpse into the early history of Sind". In Khuhro, Hamida (ed.).Sind through the centuries : proceedings of an international seminar held in Karachi in Spring 1975. Karachi: Oxford University Press. pp. 35–42.ISBN978-0-19-577250-0.
Sikdar, Jogendra Chandra (1964).Studies in the Bhagawatīsūtra. Muzaffarpur, Bihar, India: Research Institute of Prakrit, Jainology & Ahimsa. pp. 388–464.
Staubwasser, M.; Sirocko, F.; Grootes, P. M.; Segl, M. (2003). "Climate change at the 4.2 ka BP termination of the Indus valley civilization and Holocene south Asian monsoon variability".Geophysical Research Letters.30 (8): 1425.Bibcode:2003GeoRL..30.1425S.doi:10.1029/2002GL016822.ISSN0094-8276.S2CID129178112.
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