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The nameQuébec comes from anAlgonquin word meaning 'narrow passage' or 'strait'.[13] The name originally referred to the area aroundQuebec City where theSaint Lawrence River narrows to a cliff-lined gap. Early variations in the spelling includedQuébecq andKébec.[14] French explorerSamuel de Champlain chose the nameQuébec in 1608 for the colonial outpost he would use as theadministrative seat forNew France.[15]
In the 15th century, theByzantine Empire fell, prompting Western Europeans to search for newsea routes to theFar East.[21] Around 1522–23,Giovanni da Verrazzano persuadedKing Francis I of France to commission an expedition to find a western route toCathay (China) via aNorthwest Passage. Though this expedition was unsuccessful, it established the nameNew France for northeast North America.[22] In his first expedition ordered from the Kingdom of France,Jacques Cartier became the first European explorer to discover and map Quebec when he landed inGaspé on July 24, 1534.[23] In the second expedition, in 1535, Cartier explored the lands ofStadacona and named the village and its surrounding territoriesCanada (fromkanata, 'village' inIroquois). Cartier returned to France with about 10St. Lawrence Iroquoians, including ChiefDonnacona. In 1540, Donnacona told the legend of theKingdom of Saguenay to the King, inspiring him to order a third expedition, this time led byJean-François de La Rocque de Roberval; it was unsuccessful in its goal of finding the kingdom.[24]
After these expeditions, France mostly abandoned North America for 50 years because of its financial crisis; France was involved in theItalian Wars and religious wars.[25] Around 1580, the rise of thefur trade reignited French interest; New France became acolonial trading post.[26] In 1603,Samuel de Champlain travelled to the Saint Lawrence River and, on Pointe Saint-Mathieu, established adefence pact with the Innu, Maliseet and Micmacs, that would be "a decisive factor in the maintenance of a French colonial enterprise in America despite an enormous numerical disadvantage vis-à-vis the British".[27] Thus also began French military support to theAlgonquian and Huron peoples against Iroquois attacks; these became known as theIroquois Wars and lasted from the early 1600s to the early 1700s.[28]
Three Huron-Wyandot chiefs fromWendake. New France had largely peaceful relations with the Indigenous people, such as their allies the Huron. After thedefeat of the Huron by their mutual enemy, theIroquois, many fled from Ontario to Quebec.
In 1608, Samuel de Champlain[29] returned to the region as head of an exploration party. On July 3, 1608, with the support of KingHenry IV, he founded theHabitation de Québec (now Quebec City) and made it the capital of New France and its regions.[26] The settlement was built as a permanent fur trading outpost, where First Nations traded furs for French goods, such as metal objects, guns, alcohol, and clothing.[30] Missionary groups arrived in New France after the founding of Quebec City.Coureurs des bois andCatholic missionaries used rivercanoes to explore the interior and establish fur trading forts.[31][32]
In 1663, the Company of New France ceded Canada toKing Louis XIV, who made New France into a royal province of France.[35] New France was now atrue colony administered by theSovereign Council of New France from Quebec City. Agovernor-general, governed Canada and its administrative dependencies: Acadia,Louisiana and Plaisance.[36] The French settlers were mostly farmers and known as "Canadiens" or "Habitants". Though there was little immigration,[37] the colony grew because of the Habitants' high birth rates.[38][39] In 1665, theCarignan-Salières regiment developed the string of fortifications known as the "Valley of Forts" to protect against Iroquois invasions and brought with them 1,200 new men.[40] To redress the gender imbalance and boost population growth, King Louis XIV sponsored the passage of approximately 800 young French women (King's Daughters) to the colony.[35] In 1666, intendantJean Talon organized the first census and counted 3,215 Habitants. Talon enacted policies to diversify agriculture and encourage births, which, in 1672, had increased the population to 6,700.[41]
New France's territory grew to extend fromHudson Bay to theGulf of Mexico, and would encompass theGreat Lakes.[42] In the early 1700s,Governor Callières concluded theGreat Peace of Montreal, which not only confirmed the alliance between the Algonquian and New France, but definitively ended the Iroquois Wars.[43] From 1688 onwards, the fierce competition between the French and British to control North America's interior and monopolize fur trade pitted New France and its Indigenous allies against the Iroquois and English in four successive wars called theFrench and Indian Wars by Americans, and the Intercolonial Wars in Quebec.[44] The first three wereKing William's War (1688–1697),Queen Anne's War (1702–1713), andKing George's War (1744–1748). In 1713, following thePeace of Utrecht, theDuke of Orléans ceded Acadia andPlaisance Bay to Great Britain, but retainedÎle Saint-Jean, andÎle-Royale where theFortress of Louisbourg was subsequently erected. These losses were significant since Plaisance Bay was the primary communication route between New France and France, and Acadia contained 5,000Acadians.[45][46] In thesiege of Louisbourg (1745), the British were victorious, but returned the city to France after war concessions.[47]
While awaiting the results of the Seven Years' War in Europe, New France was put under aBritish military regime led by GovernorJames Murray.[53] In 1762, CommanderJeffery Amherst ended the French presence in Newfoundland at theBattle of Signal Hill. France secretly ceded the western part of Louisiana and theMississippi River Delta to Spain via theTreaty of Fontainebleau. On February 10, 1763, theTreaty of Paris concluded the war. France ceded its North American possessions to Great Britain.[54] Thus, France had put an end to New France and abandoned the remaining 60,000 Canadiens, who sided with the Catholicclergy in refusing to take an oath to theBritish Crown.[55] The rupture from France would provoke a transformation within thedescendants of the Canadiens that would eventually result in the birth of a newnation.[56]
After the British acquired Canada in 1763, the British government established a constitution for the newly acquired territory, under theRoyal Proclamation.[57] The Canadiens were subordinated to the government of theBritish Empire and circumscribed to a region of theSt. Lawrence Valley andAnticosti Island called theProvince of Quebec. With unrest growing in their southern colonies, the British were worried that the Canadiens might support what would become theAmerican Revolution. To secure allegiance to the British crown, GovernorJames Murray and later GovernorGuy Carleton promoted the need for accommodations, resulting in the enactment of theQuebec Act[58] of 1774. This act allowed Canadiens to regain theircivil customs, return to the seigneural system, regain certain rights including use of French, and reappropriate their old territories: Labrador, the Great Lakes, the Ohio Valley,Illinois Country and theIndian Territory.[59]
As early as 1774, theContinental Congress of the separatistThirteen Colonies attempted to rally the Canadiens to its cause. However,its military troops failed to defeat the British counteroffensive during itsInvasion of Quebec in 1775. Most Canadiens remained neutral, though some regiments allied themselves with the Americans in theSaratoga campaign of 1777. When the British recognized the independence of the rebel colonies at the signing of theTreaty of Paris of 1783, it conceded Illinois and the Ohio Valley to the newly formed United States and denoted the 45th parallel as its border, drastically reducing Quebec's size.
SomeUnited Empire Loyalists from the US migrated to Quebec and populated various regions.[60] Dissatisfied with the legal rights under the French seigneurial régime which applied in Quebec, and wanting to use the British legal system to which they were accustomed, the Loyalists protested to British authorities until theConstitutional Act of 1791 was enacted, dividing the Province of Quebec into two distinct colonies starting from theOttawa River:Upper Canada to the west (predominantly Anglo-Protestant) andLower Canada to the east (Franco-Catholic). Lower Canada's lands consisted of the coasts of the Saint Lawrence River, Labrador and Anticosti Island, with the territory extending north toRupert's Land, and south, east and west to the borders with the US, New Brunswick, and Upper Canada. The creation of Upper and Lower Canada allowed Loyalists to live under British laws and institutions, while Canadiens could maintain their French civil law and Catholic religion. Governor Haldimand drew Loyalists away from Quebec City and Montreal by offering free land on the north shore of Lake Ontario to anyone willing to swear allegiance to George III. During theWar of 1812,Charles-Michel de Salaberry became a hero by leading the Canadian troops to victory at theBattle of the Chateauguay. This loss caused the Americans to abandon the Saint Lawrence Campaign, their major strategic effort to conquer Canada.
In response to the rebellions,Lord Durham was asked to undertake a study and prepare areport offering a solution to the British Parliament.[64] Durham recommended that Canadiens beculturally assimilated, with English as their only official language. To do this, the British passed theAct of Union 1840, which merged Upper Canada and Lower Canada into a single colony: theProvince of Canada. Lower Canada became the francophone and densely populatedCanada East, and Upper Canada became the anglophone and sparsely populatedCanada West. This union, unsurprisingly, was the main source of political instability until 1867. Despite their population gap, Canada East and Canada West obtained an identical number of seats in theLegislative Assembly of the Province of Canada, which created representation problems. In the beginning, Canada East was underrepresented because of its superior population size. Over time, however, massive immigration from the British Isles to Canada West occurred. Since the two regions continued to have equal representation, this meant it was now Canada West that was under-represented. The representation issues were called into question by debates on"Representation by Population". The British population began to use the term "Canadian", referring to Canada, their place of residence. The French population, who had thus far identified as "Canadiens", began to be identified with theirethnic community under the name "French Canadian" as they were a "French of Canada".[65]
As access to new lands remained problematic because they were still monopolized by theClique du Château, an exodus of Canadiens towardsNew England began and went on for the next hundred years. This phenomenon is known as theGrande Hémorragie and threatened the survival of the Canadien nation. The massive British immigration ordered from London that followed the failed rebellion, compounded this. To combat it, the Church adopted therevenge of the cradle policy. In 1844, the capital of the Province of Canada was moved fromKingston to Montreal.[66] During Ireland'sGreat Potato Famine (1845-1852), nearly 100,000 Irish refugees passed throughGrosse-Île's quarantine station, with many settling in Quebec and integrating into French-Canadian society.[67][68]
After having fought as a Patriote,George-Étienne Cartier entered politics in the Province of Canada, becoming one of the co-premiers and advocate for the union of the British North American provinces. He became a leading figure at the Quebec Conference, which produced theQuebec Resolutions, the foundation for Canadian Confederation.[74] Recognized as aFather of Confederation, he successfully argued for the establishment of the province of Quebec, initially composed of the historic heart of the territory of the French Canadian nation and where French Canadians would most likely retain majority status.
Following theLondon Conference of 1866, the Quebec Resolutions were implemented as theBritish North America Act, 1867 and brought into force on July 1, 1867, creating Canada. Canada was composed of four founding provinces: New Brunswick, Nova Scotia,Ontario and Quebec. These last two came from splitting the Province of Canada, and used the old borders of Lower Canada for Quebec, and Upper Canada for Ontario. On July 15, 1867,Pierre-Joseph-Olivier Chauveau became Quebec'sfirst premier.
In 1898, the Canadian Parliament enacted theQuebec Boundary Extension Act, 1898, which gave Quebec part of Rupert's Land, which Canada had bought from theHudson's Bay Company in 1870.[77] This act expanded the boundaries of Quebec northward. In 1909, the government passed a law obligating wood and pulp to be transformed in Quebec, which helped slow theGrande Hémorragie by allowing Quebec to export its finished products to the US instead of its labour force.[78] In 1910,Armand Lavergne passed theLavergne Law, the first language legislation in Quebec. It required use of French alongside English on tickets, documents, bills and contracts issued by transportation and public utility companies. At this time, companies rarely recognized the majority language of Quebec.[79] Clerico-nationalists eventually started to fall out of favour in thefederal elections of 1911. In 1912, the Canadian Parliament enacted theQuebec Boundaries Extension Act, 1912, which gave Quebec another part of Rupert's Land: theDistrict of Ungava.[80] This extended the borders of Quebec northward to theHudson Strait.
When World War I broke out, Canada was automatically involved and many English Canadians volunteered. However, because they did not feel the same connection to the British Empire and there was no direct threat to Canada, French Canadians saw no reason to fight. By late 1916, casualties were beginning to cause reinforcement problems. After enormous difficulty in the federal government, because almost every French-speaking MP opposed conscription while almost all English-speaking MPs supported it, theMilitary Service Act became law on August 29, 1917.[81] French Canadians protested in what is now called theConscription Crisis of 1917, which led to theQuebec riot [fr].[82]
In 1919, theprohibition ofspirits was enacted followinga provincial referendum.[83] But, prohibition was abolished in 1921 due to theAlcoholic Beverages Act which created theCommission des liqueurs du Québec.[84] In 1927, the BritishJudicial Committee of the Privy Council drew a clear border between northeast Quebec and southLabrador. However, the Quebec government did not recognize the ruling of the Judicial Committee, resulting in aboundary dispute whichremains ongoing. TheStatute of Westminster 1931 was enacted, and confirmed the autonomy of theDominions – including Canada and its provinces – from the UK, as well as their free association in theCommonwealth.[85] In the 1930s, Quebec's economy was affected by theGreat Depression because it greatly reduced US demand for Quebec exports. Between 1929-32 the unemployment rate increased from 8% to 26%. In an attempt to remedy this, the Quebec government enacted infrastructure projects, campaigns to colonize distant regions, financial assistance to farmers, and thesecours directs – the ancestor to Canada'sEmployment Insurance.[86]
French Canadians remained opposed to conscription during the Second World War. When Canada declared war in September 1939, the federal government pledged not to conscript soldiers for overseas service. As the war went on, more and more English Canadians voiced support for conscription, despite firm opposition from French Canada. Following a 1942 poll that showed 73% of Quebec's residents wereagainst conscription, while 80% or more werefor conscription in every other province, the federal government passedBill 80 for overseas service.Protests exploded and theBloc Populaire emerged to fight conscription.[81] The stark differences between the values of French and English Canada popularized the expression the "Two Solitudes".
In the wake of the conscription crisis,Maurice Duplessis of theUnion Nationale ascended to power and implemented conservative policies known as theGrande Noirceur. He focused on defendingprovincial autonomy, Quebec's Catholic and francophone heritage, and laissez-faireliberalism instead of the emergingwelfare state.[87] However, as early as 1948, French Canadian society began to develop new ideologies and desires in response to societal changes such as the television, thebaby boom,workers' conflicts, electrification of the countryside, emergence of amiddle class, therural exodus andurbanization, expansion of universities and bureaucracies, creation ofmotorways, renaissance of literature and poetry, and others.
Modern Quebec (1960–present)
"Maîtres chez nous" was the electoral slogan of the Liberal Party during the 1962 election.
The Quiet Revolution was particularly characterized by the 1962 Liberal Party's slogan "Masters in our own house", which, to the Anglo-American conglomerates that dominated the economy and natural resources, announced a collective will for freedom of the French-Canadian people.[92] As a result of confrontations between the lowerclergy and thelaity, state institutions began to deliver services without the assistance of the church, and many parts ofcivil society began to be more secular. In 1965, theRoyal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism[93] wrote a preliminary report underlining Quebec's distinct character, and promoted open federalism, a political attitude guaranteeing Quebec a minimum amount of consideration.[94][95] To favour Quebec during its Quiet Revolution,Lester B. Pearson adopted a policy of open federalism.[96][97] In 1966, the Union Nationale was re-elected and continued on with major reforms.[98]
In 1967, President of FranceCharles de Gaulle visited Quebec, to attendExpo 67. There, he addressed a crowd of more than 100,000, making a speech ending with the exclamation: "Long live free Quebec". This declaration had a profound effect on Quebec by bolstering the burgeoning modernQuebec sovereignty movement and resulting in a political crisis between France and Canada. Following this, various civilian groups developed, sometimes confronting public authority, for example in theOctober Crisis of 1970.[99] The meetings of theEstates General of French Canada in 1967 marked a tipping point where relations betweenfrancophones of America, and especially francophones of Canada, ruptured. This breakdown affected Quebec society's evolution.[100]
René Lévesque (1922 –1987), one of the architects of the Quiet Revolution, and the Premier of Quebec's first modern sovereignist government
Quebec's first modern sovereignist government, led byRené Lévesque, materialized when theParti Québécois was brought to power in the1976 Quebec general election.[104] TheCharter of the French Language came into force the following year, which increased the use of French. Between 1966-69, the Estates General of French Canada confirmed thestate of Quebec to be thenation's fundamental political milieu and for it to have the right toself-determination.[105][106] In the1980 referendum on sovereignty, 60% were against.[107] After the referendum, Lévesque went back to Ottawa to start negotiating constitutional changes. On November 4, 1981, theKitchen Accord took place. Delegations from the other nine provinces and the federal government reached an agreement in the absence of Quebec's delegation, which had left for the night.[108] Because of this, the National Assembly refused to recognize the newConstitution Act, 1982, which patriated the Canadian constitution and made modifications to it.[109] The 1982 amendments apply to Quebec despite Quebec never having consented to it.[110]
Between 1982-92, the Quebec government's attitude changed to prioritize reforming the federation. Attempts at constitutional amendments by theMulroney and Bourassa governments ended in failure with theMeech Lake Accord of 1987 and theCharlottetown Accord of 1992, resulting in the creation of theBloc Québécois.[111][112] In 1995, Jacques Parizeau called areferendum on Quebec's independence from Canada. This consultation ended in failure for sovereignists, though the outcome was very close: 50.6% "no" and 49.4% "yes".[113][114][115]
In 1998, following theSupreme Court of Canada's decision on theReference Re Secession of Quebec, the Parliaments of Canada and Quebec defined thelegal frameworks within which their respective governments would act in another referendum. On October 30, 2003, the National Assembly voted unanimously to affirm "that the people of Québec form a nation".[116] On November 27, 2006, the House of Commons passed asymbolic motion declaring "that this House recognize that the Québécois form a nation within a united Canada."[117] In 2007, the Parti Québécois was pushed back to official opposition in the National Assembly, with the Liberal party leading. During the2011 Canadian federal elections, Quebec voters rejected the Bloc Québécois in favour of the previously minorNew Democratic Party (NDP). As the NDP's logo is orange, this was called the "orange wave".[118] After three subsequent Liberal governments, the Parti Québécois regained power in 2012 and its leader,Pauline Marois, became the first female premier of Quebec.[119] The Liberal Party of Quebec then returned to power in 2014.[120] In 2018, theCoalition Avenir Québec won theprovincial general elections.[121] Between 2020-21, Quebec took measures against theCOVID-19 pandemic.[122] In 2022, Coalition Avenir Québec, led by Quebec's premierFrançois Legault, increased its parliamentary majority in theprovincial general elections.[123]
Located in theeastern part of Canada, Quebec occupies a territory nearly three times the size ofFrance.[124] It holds an area of 1.5 million square kilometres (0.58 million square miles) and its borders are more than 12,000 km (7,500 mi) long.[125][126] Most of Quebec is very sparsely populated.[citation needed] The most populousphysiographic region is theGreat Lakes–St. Lawrence Lowlands. The combination of rich soils and the lowlands' relatively warm climate makes this valley the most prolific agricultural area of Quebec. The rural part of the landscape is divided into narrow rectangular tracts of land that extend from the river and date back to the seigneurial system.
Quebec'stopography is very different from one region to another due to the varying composition of the ground, the climate, and the proximity to water. More than 95% of Quebec's territory, including theLabrador Peninsula, lies within theCanadian Shield.[127] It is generally a quite flat and exposed mountainous terrain interspersed with higher points such as theLaurentian Mountains in southern Quebec, theOtish Mountains in central Quebec and theTorngat Mountains nearUngava Bay. While low and medium altitude peaks extend from western Quebec to the far north, high altitudes mountains emerge in theCapitale-Nationale region to the extreme east. Quebec's highest point at 1,652 metres (5,420 ft) is Mont d'Iberville, known in English asMount Caubvick.[128] In the Labrador Peninsula portion of the Shield, the far northern region ofNunavik includes the Ungava Peninsula and consists of flat Arctictundra inhabited mostly by the Inuit. Further south is theEastern Canadian Shield taiga ecoregion and theCentral Canadian Shield forests. TheAppalachian region has a narrow strip of ancient mountains along the southeastern border of Quebec.[129]
Thepublic lands of Quebec cover approximately 92% of its territory, including almost all of the bodies of water.Protected areas can be classified into about twenty different legal designations (ex. exceptional forest ecosystem, protected marine environment,national park,biodiversity reserve, wildlife reserve,zone d'exploitation contrôlée (ZEC), etc.).[134] More than 2,500 sites in Quebec today are protected areas.[135] As of 2013, protected areas comprise 9.14% of Quebec's territory.[136]
The ecological classification of Quebec territory established by theMinistry of Forests, Wildlife and Parks 2021, is presented in 9 levels, it includes the diversity of terrestrialecosystems throughout Quebec while taking into account both the characteristics of thevegetation (physiognomy, structure and composition) and the physical environment (relief,geology,geomorphology,hydrography).[129]
In general, the climate of Quebec is cold and humid, with variations determined by latitude, maritime and elevation influences.[137] Because of the influence of both storm systems from the core of North America and the Atlantic Ocean, precipitation is abundant throughout the year, with most areas receiving more than 1,000 mm (39 in) of precipitation, including over 300 cm (120 in) of snow in many areas.[138] During the summer, severe weather patterns (such astornadoes and severethunderstorms) occur occasionally.[139]
Quebec is divided into four climatic zones: arctic, subarctic, humid continental and East maritime. From south to north, average temperatures range in summer between 25 and 5 °C (77 and 41 °F) and, in winter, between −10 and −25 °C (14 and −13 °F).[140][141] In periods of intense heat and cold, temperatures can reach 35 °C (95 °F) in the summer[142] and −40 °C (−40 °F) during the Quebec winter,[142] Most of central Quebec, ranging from 51 to 58 degrees North has asubarctic climate (KöppenDfc).[137] Winters are long, very cold, and snowy, and among the coldest in eastern Canada, while summers are warm but very short due to the higher latitude and the greater influence of Arctic air masses. Precipitation is also somewhat less than farther south, except at some of the higher elevations. The northern regions of Quebec have anarctic climate (KöppenET), with very cold winters and short, much cooler summers.[137] The primary influences in this region are the Arctic Ocean currents (such as theLabrador Current) and continental air masses from the HighArctic.
The all-time record high temperature was 40.0 °C (104.0 °F) and the all-time record low was −51.0 °C (−59.8 °F).[143] The all-time record of the greatest precipitation in winter was established in winter 2007–2008, with more than five metres[144] of snow in the area of Quebec City.[145] March 1971, however, saw the "Century's Snowstorm" with more than 40 cm (16 in) in Montreal to 80 cm (31 in) inMont Apica of snow within 24 hours in many regions of southern Quebec. The winter of 2010 was the warmest and driest recorded in more than 60 years.[146]
Flora and fauna
Different forest areas of Quebec:
1. Middle Arctic Tundra
2. Low Arctic Tundra
3. Torngat Mountain Tundra
4. Eastern Canadian Shield Taiga
5. Southern Hudson Bay Taiga
6. Central Canadian Shield Forests
7. Eastern Canadian Forests
8. Eastern Forest/Boreal Transition
9. Eastern Great Lakes Lowland Forests
10. New England/Acadian Forests
11. Gulf of St. Lawrence Lowland Forests
Given the geology of the province and its different climates, there are a number of large areas of vegetation in Quebec. These areas, listed in order from the northernmost to the southernmost are: thetundra, thetaiga, theCanadian boreal forest (coniferous),mixed forest anddeciduous forest.[127] On the edge of Ungava Bay and Hudson Strait is the tundra, whose flora is limited tolichen with less than 50 growing days per year. Further south, the climate is conducive to the growth of theCanadian boreal forest, bounded on the north by the taiga. Not as arid as the tundra, the taiga is associated with the subarctic regions of the Canadian Shield[147] and is characterized by a greater number of both plant (600) and animal (206) species. The taiga covers about 20% of the total area of Quebec.[127] The Canadian boreal forest is the northernmost and most abundant of the three forest areas in Quebec that straddle the Canadian Shield and the upper lowlands of the province. Given a warmer climate, the diversity of organisms is also higher: there are about 850 plant species and 280 vertebrate species. Themixed forest is a transition zone between the Canadian boreal forest anddeciduous forest. This area contains a diversity of plant (1000) andvertebrates (350) species, despite relatively cool temperatures. The ecozone mixed forest is characteristic of theLaurentians, theAppalachians and the eastern lowland forests.[147] The third most northern forest area is characterized bydeciduous forests. Because of its climate, this area has the greatest diversity of species, including more than 1600vascular plants and 440 vertebrates.
Quebec has a network of three offices for representing itself and defending its interests within Canada: one in Moncton for all provinces east, one in Toronto for all provinces west, and one in Ottawa for the federal government. These offices' mandate is to ensure an institutional presence of the Government of Quebec near other Canadian governments.[160][161]
Quebec's constitution is enshrined in a series of social and cultural traditions that are defined in a set of judicial judgments and legislative documents, including theLoi sur l'Assemblée Nationale ("Law on the National Assembly"), theLoi sur l'éxecutif ("Law on the Executive"), and theLoi électorale du Québec ("Electoral Law of Quebec").[166] Other notable examples include theCharter of Human Rights and Freedoms, theCharter of the French language, and theCivil Code of Quebec.[167]
Quebec's international policy is founded upon theGérin-Lajoie doctrine [fr],[168] formulated in 1965. While Quebec'sMinistry of International Relations coordinates international policy,Quebec's general delegations are the main interlocutors in foreign countries. Quebec is the only Canadian province that has set up a ministry to exclusively embody the state's powers for international relations.[169]
TheMinistère de l'Emploi et de la Solidarité sociale du Québec has the mandate to oversee social and workforce developments through Emploi-Québec and its local employment centres (CLE).[175] This ministry is also responsible for managing theRégime québécois d'assurance parentale (QPIP) as well as last-resort financial support for people in need. TheCommission des normes, de l'équité, de la santé et de la sécurité du travail [fr] (CNESST) is the main body responsible for labour laws in Quebec[176] and for enforcing agreements concluded between unions of employees and their employers.[177]
Revenu Québec is the body responsible for collecting taxes. It takes its revenue through aprogressive income tax, a 9.975% sales tax,[178] various other provincial taxes (ex. carbon, corporate and capital gains taxes),equalization payments, transfer payments from other provinces, and direct payments.[179] By some measures Quebec residents are the most taxed;[180] a 2012 study indicated that "Quebec companies pay 26 per cent more in taxes than the Canadian average".[181]
Quebec's immigration philosophy is based on the principles of pluralism andinterculturalism.TheMinistère de l'Immigration et des Communautés culturelles du Québec is responsible for the selection and integration of immigrants.[182] Programs favour immigrants who know French, have a low risk of becoming criminals and have in-demand skills.
Quebec's health and social services network is administered by theMinistry of Health and Social Services. It is composed of 95réseaux locaux de services (RLS; 'local service networks') and 18agences de la santé et des services sociaux (ASSS; 'health and social services agencies'). Quebec's health system is supported by theRégie de l'assurance maladie du Québec (RAMQ) which works to maintain the accessibility of services for all citizens of Quebec.[183]
TheMinistère de la Famille et des Aînés du Québec operatecentres de la petite enfance [fr] (CPEs; 'centres for young children').Quebec's education system is administered by theMinistry of Education and Higher Education (primary andsecondary schools), theMinistère de l'Enseignement supérieur (CEGEP) and theConseil supérieure de l'Education du Québec (universities and colleges).[184] In 2012, the annual cost for postsecondarytuition was CA$2,168 (€1,700)—less than half of Canada's average tuition. Part of the reason for this is that tuition fees were frozen to a relatively low level when CEGEPS were created during the Quiet Revolution. When Jean Charest's government decided in 2012 to sharply increase university fees,students protests erupted.[185] Because of these protests, Quebec's tuition fees remain relatively low.
External relationships
Quebec's closest international partner is the United States, with which it shares a long and positive history. Products ofAmerican culture like songs, movies, fashion and food strongly affect Québécois culture.
Quebec has a historied relationship with France, as Quebec was a part of the French Empire and both regions share a language. TheFédération France-Québec [fr] and theFrancophonie are a few of the tools used for relations between Quebec and France. InParis, aplace du Québec was inaugurated in 1980.[186] Quebec also has a historied relationship with the United Kingdom, having been a part of the British Empire. Quebec and the UK share the same head of state,King Charles III.
Quebec law is the shared responsibility of thefederal andprovincial government. The federal government is responsible forcriminal law, foreign affairs and laws relating to the regulation of Canadian commerce, interprovincial transportation, and telecommunications.[188] The provincial government is responsible forprivate law, the administration of justice, and several social domains, such as social assistance, healthcare, education, and natural resources.[188]
English is not an official language inQuebec law.[196] However, both English and French are required by theConstitution Act, 1867 for the enactment of laws and regulations, and any person may use English or French in the National Assembly and the courts. The books and records of the National Assembly must also be kept in both languages.[197][198]
Courts
Although Quebec is a civil law jurisdiction, it does not follow the pattern of other civil law systems which have court systems divided by subject matter. Instead, the court system follows the English model of unitary courts of general jurisdiction. The provincial courts have jurisdiction to decide matters underprovincial law as well asfederal law, includingcivil,criminal andconstitutional matters.[199] The major exception to the principle of general jurisdiction is that theFederal Court andFederal Court of Appeal have exclusive jurisdiction over some areas of federal law, such as review of federal administrative bodies, federal taxes, and matters relating to national security.[200]
The Quebec courts are organized in a pyramid. At the bottom, there are themunicipal courts, the Professions Tribunal, the Human Rights Tribunal, and administrative tribunals. Decisions of those bodies can be reviewed by the two trial courts, theCourt of Quebec theSuperior Court of Quebec. The Court of Quebec is the main criminal trial court, and also a court for small civil claims. The Superior Court is a trial court of general jurisdiction, in both criminal and civil matters. The decisions of those courts can be appealed to theQuebec Court of Appeal. Finally, if the case is of great importance, it may be appealed to theSupreme Court of Canada.
The Court of Appeal serves two purposes. First, it is the general court of appeal for all legal issues from the lower courts. It hears appeals from the trial decisions of the Superior Court and the Quebec Court. It also can hear appeals from decisions rendered by those two courts on appeals or judicial review matters relating to the municipal courts and administrative tribunals.[201] Second, but much more rarely, the Court of Appeal possesses the power to respond toreference questions posed to it by theQuebec Cabinet. The Court of Appeal renders more than 1,500 judgments per year.[202]
Law enforcement
TheSûreté du Québec is the main police force of Quebec. The Sûreté du Québec can also serve a support and coordination role with other police forces, such as with municipal police forces or with theRoyal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP).[203][204] The RCMP has the power to enforce certain federal laws in Quebec. However, given the existence of the Sûreté du Québec, its role is more limited than in the other provinces.[205]
Municipal police, such as theService de police de la Ville de Montréal and theService de police de la Ville de Québec, are responsible for law enforcement in their municipalities. The Sûreté du Québec fulfils the role of municipal police in the 1038 municipalities that do not have a municipal police force.[206] The Indigenous communities of Quebec have their own police forces.[207]
In the2021 census, Quebec's population was determined to be 8,501,833, a 4.1% change from its 2016 population of 8,164,361. With a land area of 1,356,625.27 km2 (523,795.95 sq mi), it had a population density of6.0/km2 (15.6/sq mi) in 2016. Quebec accounts for a little under 23% of the Canadian population. Themost populated cities in Quebec areMontreal (1,762,976),Quebec City (538,738),Laval (431,208), andGatineau (281,501).[209]
In 2016, Quebec's median age was 41.2 years. As of 2020, 20.8% of the population were younger than 20, 59.5% were aged between 20 and 64, and 19.7% were 65 or older. In 2019, Quebec witnessed an increase in the number of births compared to the year before (84,200 vs 83,840) and had atotal fertility rate of about 1.6 children born per woman. As of 2020, the average life expectancy was 82.3 years. Quebec in 2019 registered the highest rate of population growth since 1972, with an increase of 110,000 people, mostly because of the arrival of a high number of immigrants. As of 2019, most international immigrants came from China, India or France.[210] In 2016, 30% of the population possessed apostsecondary degree or diploma. Most residents, particularly couples, areproperty owners. In 2016, 80% of both property owners and renters considered their housing to be "unaffordable".[211] In the2021 Canadian census, 29.3% of Quebec's population stated their ancestry was of Canadian origin and 21.1% stated their ancestry was of French origin.[212] As of 2021, 18% of Quebec's population werevisible minorities.[213]
TheRoman Catholic Church has long occupied a central and integral place in Quebec society since the foundation of Quebec City in 1608. However, since theQuiet Revolution, which secularized Quebec, irreligion has been growing significantly.[215]
Asian or Middle Eastern religions were not present before the 20th century. They started establishing a small presence following the passing of theImmigration Act of 1962. Islam in particular has grown rapidly since the 1990s due to high immigration levels. It went from 44,930 followers (0.6% of the population) in 1991 to 421,715 followers (5.1%) in 2021.[216][217]
Linguistic map of the province of Quebec (source: Statistics Canada, 2006 census)
Francophone majority, less than 33% Anglophone
Francophone majority, more than 33% Anglophone
Anglophone majority, more than 33% Francophone
Anglophone majority, less than 33% Francophone
Data not available
Quebec differs from other Canadian provinces in thatFrench is the onlyofficial and preponderant language, whileEnglish predominates in therest of Canada.[220] French is thecommon language, understood and spoken by 94.4% of the population.[221][222]Québécois French is the localvariant of the language. Canada is estimated to be home to roughly 30 regional French accents,[223][224] 17 of which can be found in Quebec.[225] TheOffice québécois de la langue française oversees the application of linguistic policies respecting French on the territory, jointly with theSuperior Council of the French Language and theCommission de toponymie du Québec. The foundation for these linguistic policies was created in 1968 by theGendron Commission and they have been accompanied theCharter of the French language ("Bill 101") since 1977. The policies are in effect to protect Quebec from being assimilated by its English-speaking neighbours (the rest of Canada and the United States)[226][227] and were also created to rectify historical injustice between the Francophone majority and Anglophone minority, the latter of which were favoured since Quebec was a colony of the British Empire.[228]
Quebec is the only Canadian province whose population is mainlyFrancophone, meaning that French is their native language. In the2011 Census, 6,102,210 people (78.1% of the population) recorded French as their sole native language and 6,249,085 (80.0%) recorded that they spoke French most often at home.[229]
People with English as their native language, calledAnglo-Quebecers, constitute the second largest linguistic group in Quebec. In 2011,English was the mother tongue of nearly 650,000 Quebecers (8% of the population).[230] Anglo-Quebecers reside mainly in the west of the island of Montreal (West Island),downtown Montreal and thePontiac.
As of the2016 census, the most common immigrant languages claimed as a native language wereArabic (2.5% of the total population),Spanish (1.9%),Italian (1.4%), Creole languages (mainlyHaitian Creole) (0.8%), andMandarin (0.6%).[234]
As of the2021 Canadian Census, the ten most spoken languages in the province wereFrench (spoken by 7,786,735 people, or 93.72% of the population),English (4,317,180 or 51.96%),Spanish (453,905 or 5.46%),Arabic (343,675 or 4.14%),Italian (168,040 or 2.02%),Haitian Creole (118,010 or 1.42%),Mandarin (80,520 or 0.97%),Portuguese (65,605 or 0.8%),Russian (55,485 or 0.7%), andGreek (50,375 or 0.6%).[235] The question on knowledge of languages allows for multiple responses.
The Inuit of Quebec live mainly inNunavik inNord-du-Québec. They make up the majority of the population living north of the 55th parallel. There are ten First Nations ethnic groups in Quebec: theAbenaki, theAlgonquin, theAttikamek, theCree, theWolastoqiyik, theMi'kmaq, theInnu, theNaskapis, theHuron-Wendat and theMohawks. The Mohawks were once part of theIroquois Confederacy.Aboriginal rights were enunciated in theIndian Act and adopted at the end of the 19th century. This act confinesFirst Nations within thereserves created for them. The Indian Act is still in effect today.[238] In 1975, theCree,Inuit and the Quebec government agreed to an agreement called theJames Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement that would extended indigenous rights beyond reserves, and to over two-thirds of Quebec's territory. Because this extension was enacted without the participation of thefederal government, the extended indigenous rights only exist in Quebec. In 1978, theNaskapis joined the agreement when theNortheastern Quebec Agreement was signed. Discussions have been underway with the Montagnais of theCôte-Nord andSaguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean for the potential creation of a similar autonomy in two new distinct territories that would be calledInnu Assi andNitassinan.[239]
A few political institutions have also been created over time:
The subject ofAcadians in Quebec is an important one as more than a million people in Quebec are ofAcadian descent, with roughly 4.8 million people possessing one or multiple Acadian ancestors in their genealogy tree, because a large number of Acadians had fledAcadia to take refuge in Quebec during theGreat Upheaval. Furthermore, more than a million people have apatronym of Acadian origin.[243][244][245][246]
Quebec houses Acadian communities. Acadians mainly live on theMagdalen Islands and inGaspesia, but about thirty other communities are present elsewhere in Quebec, mostly in theCôte-Nord andCentre-du-Québec regions. An Acadian community in Quebec can be called a "Cadie", "Petite Cadie" or "Cadien".[247]
Like mostindustrialized countries, the economy is based mainly on theservices sector. Quebec's economy has traditionally been fuelled by abundant natural resources and a well-developed infrastructure, but has undergone significant change over the past decade.[252] Firmly grounded in theknowledge economy, Quebec has one of the highest growth rates of GDP in Canada. The knowledge sector represents about 31% of Quebec's GDP.[253] In 2011, Quebec experienced faster growth of itsresearch-and-development (R&D) spending than other Canadian provinces.[254] Quebec's spending in R&D in 2011 was equal to 2.63% of GDP, above theEuropean Union average of 1.8%.[255] The percentage spent on research and technology is the highest in Canada and higher than the averages for theOrganisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and theG7 countries.[256]
Quebec's exports to the international market. The United States is the country which buys the most exports from Quebec by far. (2011)
Thanks to theWorld Trade Organization (WTO) and theNorth American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), Quebec had, as of 2009[update], experienced an increase in its exports and in its ability to compete on the international market. International exchanges contribute to the strength of the Quebec economy.[257] NAFTA is especially advantageous as it gives Quebec, among other things, access to a market of 130 million consumers within a radius of 1,000 kilometres.
In 2008, Quebec's exports to other provinces in Canada and abroad totalled 157.3 billionCND$, or 51.8% of Quebec'sgross domestic product (GDP). Of this total, 60.4% were international exports, and 39.6% were interprovincial exports. The breakdown by destination of international merchandise exports is: United States (72.2%), Europe (14.4%), Asia (5.1%), Middle East (2.7%), Central America (2.3%), South America (1.9%), Africa (0.8%) and Oceania (0.7%).[257]
In 2008, Quebec imported $178 billion worth of goods and services, or 58.6% of its GDP. Of this total, 62.9% of goods were imported from international markets, while 37.1% of goods were interprovincial imports. The breakdown by origin of international merchandise imports is as follows: United States (31.1%), Europe (28.7%), Asia (17.1%), Africa (11.7%), South America (4.5%), Central America (3.7%), Middle East (1.3%) and Oceania (0.7%).[257]
Quebec produces most of Canada'shydroelectricity and is the second biggest hydroelectricity producer in the world (2019).[258] Because of this, Quebec has been described as a potentialclean energy superpower.[259] In 2019, Quebec's electricity production amounted to 214terawatt-hours (TWh), 95% of which comes from hydroelectric power stations, and 4.7% of which come fromwind energy. The public companyHydro-Québec occupies a dominant position in the production, transmission and distribution of electricity in Quebec. Hydro-Québec operates 63 hydroelectric power stations and 28 large reservoirs.[260] Because of the remoteness of Hydro-Québec'sTransÉnergie division, it operates the largest electricity transmission network in North America. Quebec stands out for its use ofrenewable energy. In 2008, electricity ranked as the main form of energy used in Quebec (41.6%), followed byoil (38.2%) andnatural gas (10.7%).[261] In 2017, 47% of all energy came from renewable sources.[262] The Quebec government's energy policy seeks to build, by 2030, alow carbon economy.
Quebec ranks among the top ten areas to do business in mining in the world.[263] In 2011, themining industry accounted for 6.3% of Quebec's GDP[264] and it employed about 50,000 people in 158 companies.[265] It has around 30 mines, 158 exploration companies and 15 primary processing industries. While many metallic and industrial minerals are exploited, the main ones are gold, iron, copper andzinc. Others include:titanium,asbestos, silver,magnesium and nickel, among many others.[266] Quebec is also as a major source of diamonds.[267] Since 2002, Quebec has seen an increase in its mineral explorations. In 2003, the value of mineral exploitation reached $3.7 billion.[268]
Theagri-food industry plays an important role in the economy of Quebec, with meat anddairy products being the two main sectors. It accounts for 8% of the Quebec's GDP and generate $19.2 billion. In 2010, this industry generated 487,000 jobs in agriculture, fisheries, manufacturing of food, beverages and tobacco and food distribution.[269]
Thepulp and paper industry accounted for 3.1% of Quebec's GDP in 2007[274] and generated annual shipments valued at more than $14 billion.[275] This industry employs 68,000 people in several regions of Quebec.[276] It is also the main -and in some circumstances only- source of manufacturing activity in more than 250 municipalities in the province. The forest industry has slowed in recent years because of thesoftwood lumber dispute.[277] In 2020, this industry represented 8% of Quebec's exports.[278]
As Quebec has few significant deposits offossil fuels,[279] allhydrocarbons are imported.Refiners' sourcing strategies have varied over time and have depended on market conditions. In the 1990s, Quebec purchased much of its oil from theNorth Sea. Since 2015, it now consumes almost exclusively the crude produced inwestern Canada and the United States.[280] Quebec's two active refineries have a total capacity of 402,000 barrels per day, greater than local needs which stood at 365,000 barrels per day in 2018.[279]
Thanks to hydroelectricity, Quebec is the world's fourth largestaluminum producer and creates 90% of Canadian aluminum. Three companies make aluminum here:Rio Tinto,Alcoa and Aluminium Alouette. Their 9alumineries produce 2,9 million tons of aluminum annually and employ 30,000 workers.[281]
Tertiary sector
Thefinance and insurance sector employs more than 168,000 people. Of this number, 78,000 are employed by the banking sector, 53,000 by the insurance sector and 20,000 by the securities and investment sector.[282] TheBank of Montreal, founded in 1817 in Montreal, was Quebec's first bank but, like many other large banks, its central branch is now in Toronto. Several banks remain based in QuebecNational Bank of Canada, theDesjardins Group and theLaurentian Bank.
Thetourism industry is a major sector in Quebec. TheMinistry of Tourism ensures the development of this industry under the commercial name "Bonjour Québec".[283] Quebec is the second most important province for tourism in Canada, receiving 21.5% of tourists' spending (2021).[284] The industry provides employment to over 400,000 people.[285] These employees work in the more than 29,000 tourism-related businesses in Quebec, most of which are restaurants or hotels. 70% of tourism-related businesses are located in or close to Montreal or Quebec City. It is estimated that, in 2010, Quebec welcomed 25.8 million tourists. Of these, 76.1% came from Quebec, 12.2% from therest of Canada, 7.7% from the United States and 4.1% from other countries. Annually, tourists spend more than $6.7 billion in Quebec's tourism industry.[286]
Approximately 1.1 million Quebecers work in the field of science and technology.[287] In 2007, theGovernment of Quebec launched the Stratégie québécoise de la recherche et de l'innovation (SQRI) aiming to promote development through research, science and technology. The government hoped to create a strong culture of innovation in Quebec for the next decades and to create asustainable economy.[288]
Quebec'sIT sector has 7,600 businesses and employs 140,000 people.[289][290][291] Its most developed sectors aretelecommunications, multimedia and video game software, computer services, microelectronics, and the components sector. There are currently 115 telecommunications companies established in the province, includingMotorola,Ericsson and Mitec.[292] The multimedia and video game sector has been growing fast since the early 2000s. The Digital Alliance, which claims 191 active members in video games, online education, mobility and Internet services, estimates the annual revenue of the sector at $827 million in 2014.[293] The microelectronics sector is made up of more than 100 companies employing 13,000 people. Computer services, software development, and consulting engineering employ 60,000 skilled workers. While the largest IT employers areCMC Electronics,IBM, andMatrox, many other tech companies are present here, includingUbisoft,Electronic Arts,Microids,Strategy First,Eidos,Activision,A2M,Frima Studio, etc.[294]
Montreal is ranked fourth in North America for the number of jobs in the pharmaceutical sector.[295][296]
All universities in Quebec exist by virtue of laws adopted by theNational Assembly of Quebec in 1967 during theQuiet Revolution. Their financing mostly comes from public taxes, but the laws under which they operate grants them more autonomy than other levels of education.[298]
Quebec is considered one of world leaders infundamental scientific research, having produced tenNobel laureates in either physics, chemistry, or medicine.[299] It is also considered one of the world leaders in sectors such as aerospace, information technology, biotechnology and pharmaceuticals, and therefore plays a significant role in the world's scientific and technological communities.[300] Between 2000 and 2011, Quebec had over 9,469 scientific publications in biomedical research and engineering.[301] The contribution of Quebec in science and technology represented approximately 1% of the research worldwide between the 1980s and 2009.[302]
Quebec ranks among the world leaders in the field oflife science.[295] Quebec has more than 450 biotechnology and pharmaceutical companies which together employ more than 25,000 people and 10,000 highly qualified researchers.[295]
The ferry N.M.Camille-Marcoux, of theSociété des traversiers du Québec
Development and security of land transportation in Canada are provided byTransports Québec.[307] Other organizations, such as theCanadian Coast Guard andNav Canada, provide the same service for the sea and air transportation. TheCommission des transports du Québec works with the freight carriers and the public transport.
Theréseau routier québécois (Quebec road network) is managed by theSociété de l'assurance automobile du Québec (SAAQ; Quebec Automobile Insurance Corporation) and consists of about 185,000 km (115,000 mi) of highways and national, regional, local, collector and forest roads. In addition, Quebec has almost 12,000 bridges, tunnels, retaining walls, culverts and other structures[308] such as theQuebec Bridge, theLaviolette Bridge and theLouis-Hippolyte Lafontaine Bridge–Tunnel.
In the waters of the Saint Lawrence there are eight deep-water ports for the transhipment of goods. In 2003, 3886 cargo and 9.7 million tonnes of goods transited the Quebec portion of theSaint Lawrence Seaway.[309]
Concerning rail transport, Quebec has 6,678 km (4,150 mi) of railways[310] integrated in the large North American network. Although primarily intended for the transport of goods through companies such as theCanadian National (CN) and theCanadian Pacific (CP), the Quebec railway network is also used by inter-city passengers viaVia Rail Canada andAmtrak. In April 2012, plans were unveiled for the construction of an 800 km (497 mi) railway running north fromSept-Îles, to support mining and other resource extraction in the Labrador Trough.[311]
Quebec's air network includes 43 airports that offer scheduled services on a daily basis.[309] In addition, the Government of Quebec owns airports and heliports to increase the accessibility of local services to communities in theBasse-Côte-Nord and northern regions.[312]
Various other transport networks crisscross the province of Quebec, including hiking trails, snowmobile trails and bike paths. TheGreen Road is the largest at nearly 4,000 km (2,500 mi) in length.[313]
Healthcare
Quebec has a health policy that emphasizes prevention, is based on the analysis of health-related data, and evolves with the needs of the population. Similar to other developed economies, the public health policies implemented in Quebec have extended the life expectancy of its population since the mid-20th century.[314]
Health and social services are part of the same administration. The Quebec health system is also public, which means that thegovernment acts as the main insurer and administrator, that funding is provided by general taxation, and that patients have access to care regardless of their income level.
There are 34 health establishments in Quebec, 22 of which are anIntegrated Health and Social Services Centre [fr] (CISSS). They ensure the distribution of different services on the territories they are assigned to. Quebec has approximately 140 hospitals for general or specialised care (CHSGS). Quebec also has other types of establishments in its healthcare system, such asCentre local de services communautaires (CLSC),Centre d'hébergement et de soins de longue durée (CHSLD),Centre de réadaptation andCentre de protection de l'enfance et de la jeunesse. Finally, there are private healthcare establishments (paid for directly by the patient) likeGroupe de médecine de famille [fr], pharmacies, private clinics, dentists, community organisations and retirement homes.[315]
A 2021 Ipsos poll found that 85% of Quebecers agree that their health care system is too bureaucratic to respond to the needs of the population[316] and in 2023 found that less than half of Quebecers are satisfied with the provincial health care system.[317]
In 2021, 59.9% of Quebec's residents were property owners.[318] In 2019, among property owners, 34% were couples with kids, 33% were couples without children, 22% lived alone, 8% were single parents, and 3% were something else. Among renters, 16% were couples with kids, 13% were couples without children, 51% lived alone, 13% were single parents, and 7% were something else.[211]
Since the 1980s, the average price of a single-family home has doubled every 10 years, going from $48,715 in 1980 to $424,844 in 2021. Since the average salary did not follow these increases, Quebec homes are 10 times more expensive than they were 40 years ago.[319] In 2022, the cities with the most severe housing shortages wereGranby, with a vacancy rate of 0,1%, followed byMarieville (0,1%),Rimouski (0,2%),Drummondville (0,2%) andRouyn-Noranda (0,3%).[320]
Quebec has developed its own unique culture from its historicNew France roots. Its culture also symbolizes a distinct perspective: being a French-speaking nation surrounded by a bigger English-speaking culture.
TheQuartier Latin (English: Latin Quarter) of Montreal, and Vieux-Québec (English:Old Quebec) in Quebec City are two hubs of metropolitan cultural activity. Life in the cafés and "terrasses" (outdoor restaurant terraces) reveals a Latin influence in Quebec's culture, with thethéâtre Saint-Denis in Montreal and theCapitole de Québec theatre in Quebec City being among the principal attractions.
A number of governmental and non-government organizations support cultural activity in Quebec. TheConseil des arts et des lettres du Québec (CALQ) is an initiative of theMinistry of Culture and Communications (Quebec). It supports creation, innovation, production, and international exhibits for all cultural fields of Quebec. TheSociété de développement des entreprises culturelles (SODEC) works to promote and fund individuals working in the cultural industry. ThePrix du Québec is an award given by the government to confer the highest distinction and honour to individuals demonstrating exceptional achievement in their respective cultural field. Other awards include the Athanase David Awards (Literature),Félix Awards (Music),Gémeaux Awards (Television and film),Jutra Awards (Cinema), Masques Awards (Theatre),Olivier Guimond Awards (Humour) and the Opus Awards (Concert music).
Comedy is a vastcultural sector. Quebec has created and is home to several different comedy festivals, including theJust for Laughs festival in Montreal, as well as the Grand Rire festivals of Quebec, Gatineau and Sherbrooke.[327] TheAssociation des professionnels de l'industrie de l'humour (APIH) is the main organization for the promotion and development of the cultural sector of humour in Quebec and theNational School of Humour [fr], created in 1988, trains future humorists in Quebec.
TheCinémathèque québécoise has a mandate to promote the film and television heritage of Quebec. TheNational Film Board of Canada (NFB), a federal Crown corporation, provides for the same mission in Canada. The Association of Film and Television in Quebec (APFTQ) promotes independent production in film and television.[328] While the Association of Producers and Directors of Quebec (APDQ) represents the business of filmmaking and television, the Association of Community Radio Broadcasters of Quebec (ARCQ) (French acronym) represents the independent radio stations.[329] Several movie theatres across Quebec ensure the dissemination of Quebec cinema. With its cinematic installations, such as theCité du cinéma andMel's studios, the city of Montreal is home to the filming of various productions.[330] The state corporationTélé-Québec, the federal Crown corporationCBC, general and specialized private channels, networks, independent and community radio stations broadcast the variousQuebec téléromans, the national and regional news, and other programming.[331][332]Les Rendez-vous du cinéma québécois is a festival surrounding the ceremony of theJutra Awards Night that rewards work and personalities of Quebec cinema.[333] The Artis and theGemini Awards gala recognize the personalities of television and radio industry in Quebec and French Canada. TheFilm Festival of the 3 Americas, theFestival of International Short Film, theWorld Film Festival and theFestival of New Cinema are other annual events surrounding the film industry in Quebec.
Popular comedy shows includeCré Basile, Le zoo du Capitaine Bonhomme, Lundi des Ha! Ha !, Démons du midi,La petite vie,Les Bougon, andLe sketch show. There are also many comedy and cartoon shows created for children, such asLa boîte à surprise,Bobino, Le pirate Maboule,Fanfreluche, La Ribouldingue, Les 100 Tours de Centour, Patofville,Passe-Partout,Robin et Stella,Iniminimagimo, Vazimolo, Télé-Pirate,Bibi et Geneviève,Watatatow,Caillou, Cornemuse, Macaroni tout garni,Toc toc toc, Ramdam, andTactik.
In the realm of literature and international publishing, theQuébec Édition group is a committee created by the National Association of Book Editors dedicated to the international influence of French-language publishings from Quebec and Canada.[334]
Quebec's French-speaking populace has the second largest body of folktales in Canada (the first beingFirst Nations).[335] When the early settlers arrived from France in the 17th century, they brought with them popular tales from their homeland, which were adapted to the local context. Many were passed on through generations byraconteurs, or storytellers.[336] Almost all of the stories native to Quebec were influenced by Christiandogma andsuperstitions. TheDevil, for instance, appears often as either a person, an animal or monster, or indirectly through Demonic acts.[337] Various tales and stories are told through oral tradition, such as, among many others, the legends of theBogeyman, theChasse-galerie, theBlack Horse of Trois-Pistoles, theComplainte de Cadieux, theCorriveau, thedancing devil of Saint-Ambroise, theGiant Beaupré, themonsters of the lakesPohénégamook andMemphremagog, ofQuebec Bridge (called the Devil's Bridge), theRocher Percé and ofRose Latulipe, for example.[338]
Canadien-style houses and barns were developed by the first settlers of New France along the banks of the Saint Lawrence River. These buildings are rectangular one-storey structures with an extremely tall and steep roof, sometimes almost twice as tall as the house below. Canadien-style churches also developed and served as landmarks while traversing rural Quebec.
Quebec is the world's biggestmaple syrup producer.[344] The province has a long history of producing maple syrup, and creating newmaple-derived products. Other major food products include beer, wine (includingice wine andice cider), and cheese.
National Patriots' Day, a statutory holiday in Quebec, is also a unique public holiday, which honours thepatriotes with displays of thepatriote flag, music, public speeches, and ceremonies.[348]Le Vieux de '37 ("The Old Man of '37"), an illustration byHenri Julien that depicts a patriot of this rebellion,[349] is sometimes added at the centre ofPatriote flags.Moving Day is a tradition where leases terminate on July 1. This creates asocial phenomenon where everyone seems to be moving out at the same time.[350]
Other distinct holiday traditions include theRéveillon, a giant feast and party which takes place duringChristmas Eve andNew Year's Eve and goes on until midnight. Traditional dishes liketourtière orcipâte are offered, andrigaudon,spoon orviolin may be played.[351] Finally,April Fools' Day is calledPoisson d'Avril ("April's Fish") because while pulling pranks is still important, there is another major tradition: sticking fish-shaped paper cutouts to people's backs without them noticing.[352]
In 1939, thegovernment of Quebec unilaterally ratified itscoat of arms to reflectQuebec's political history: French rule (gold lily on blue background), followed by British rule (lion on red background), followed by Canadian rule (maple leaves).[353]Je me souviens ("I remember") is an official part of the coat of arms and has been the official licence plate motto since 1978, replacing the previous motto:La belle province ("the beautiful province"), still used as a nickname for the province. Thefleur-de-lis, one of Quebec's most common symbols, is an ancient symbol of theFrench monarchy. Finally, theGreat Seal of Quebec is used to authenticate documents issued by the government of Quebec.
The first members of theSaint-Jean-Baptiste Society created theCarillon Sacré-Coeur flag, which consisted of a white cross on an azure background with white fleur-de-lis in each corner and aSacred Heart surrounded bymaple leaves in the centre; it was based on the French merchant flag flown by Champlain and theFlag of Carillon. TheCarillon Sacré-Coeur and French merchant flag went on to be the major inspirations for creating Quebec's current flag in 1903, called theFleurdelisé. TheFleurdelisé replaced theUnion Jack on Quebec'sParliament Building on January 21, 1948.
Three new official emblems in were adopted in the late 20th century: theSnowy owl in 1987 to symbolize the whiteness of Quebec's semi-northern climate, theYellow birch in 1993 for the variety of its uses and by its commercial value, and theIris versicolor in 1999 to illustrate the cultural diversity of Quebec and the importance of water and wetlands for the balance of nature.[354][355]
From the mid-1800s to theGreat Depression, Quebec experienced theGrande Hémorragie ("Great Hemorrhaging"), a massive emigration of 900,000 people from Quebec toNew England.[356] French Canadians often established themselves inLittle Canadas in many industrial New England centres. Of the 900,000 Québécois who emigrated, about half returned.[357] Most of the descendants of those who stayed are nowassimilated, though a fewFranco-Americans remain, speakingNew England French.
In recent times,snowbirds often migrate to southernFlorida during the winter, resulting in the emergence of temporary "Québécois regions," such as inHollywood.[359]
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