During the pre-Columbian era, manycivilizations developed permanent settlements, cities, agricultural practices, civic and monumental architecture, majorearthworks, andcomplex societal hierarchies. Some of these civilizations had declined by the time of the establishment of the first permanent European colonies, around the late 16th to early 17th centuries,[1] and are known primarily througharchaeological research of the Americas and oral histories. Other civilizations, contemporaneous with the colonial period, were documented in European accounts of the time. For instance, theMaya civilization maintained written records, which were often destroyed by Christian Europeans such asDiego de Landa, who viewed them aspagan but sought to preserve native histories. Despite the destruction, a few original documents have survived, and others were transcribed or translated into Spanish, providing modern historians with valuable insights into ancient cultures and knowledge.
Before the development of archaeology in the 19th century, historians of the pre-Columbian period mainly interpreted the records of the European conquerors and the accounts of early European travelers and antiquaries. It was not until the nineteenth century that the work of people such asJohn Lloyd Stephens,Eduard Seler, andAlfred Maudslay, and institutions such as thePeabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology ofHarvard University, led to the reconsideration and criticism of the early European sources. Now, the scholarly study of pre-Columbian cultures is most often based on scientific and multidisciplinary methodologies.[2]
Human settlement of the Americas occurred in stages from theBering Sea coastline, with an initial 20,000-year layover onBeringia for thefounding population.[8][9] Themicrosatellite diversity and distributions of the Y lineage specific to South America indicate that certain Amerindian populations have been isolated since the initial colonization of the region.[10] TheNa-Dené,Inuit, andIndigenous Alaskan populations exhibithaplogroup Q-M242 (Y-DNA) mutations, however, and are distinct from other Indigenous peoples with various mtDNA mutations.[11][12][13] This suggests that the earliest migrants into the northern extremes of North America and Greenland derived from later populations.[14]
Asian nomadicPaleo-Indians are thought to have entered theAmericas via theBering Land Bridge (Beringia), now theBering Strait, and possibly along the coast. Genetic evidence found inIndigenous peoples' maternally inheritedmitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) supports the theory of multiple genetic populations migrating from Asia.[15][16][17] After crossing the land bridge, they moved southward along the Pacific coast[18] and through an interior ice-free corridor.[19] Throughout millennia,Paleo-Indians spread throughout the rest of North and South America.
Exactly when the first people migrated into the Americas is the subject of much debate.[15] One of the earliest identifiable cultures was theClovis culture, with sites dating from some 13,000 years ago.[20] However, older sites dating back to 20,000 years ago have been claimed. Somegenetic studies estimate the colonization of the Americas dates from between 40,000 and 13,000 years ago.[21] The chronology of migration models is currently divided into two general approaches. The first is theshort chronology theory with the first movement beyondAlaska into theAmericas occurring no earlier than 14,000–17,000 years ago, followed by successive waves of immigrants.[22][23][24][25] The second belief is thelong chronology theory, which proposes that the first group of people entered the hemisphere at a much earlier date, possibly 30,000–40,000 years ago or earlier.[26][27][28][29]
Artifacts have been found in both North and South America which have beendated to 14,000 years ago,[30] and accordingly humans have been proposed to have reachedCape Horn at the southern tip of South America by this time. In that case, theInuit would have arrived separately and at a much later date, probably no more than 2,000 years ago, moving across the ice fromSiberia into Alaska.
The North American climate was unstable as the ice age receded during theLithic stage. It finally stabilized about 10,000 years ago; climatic conditions were then very similar to today's.[31] Within this time frame, roughly about theArchaic Period, numerousarchaeological cultures have been identified.
The unstable climate led to widespread migration, with earlyPaleo-Indians soon spreading throughout the Americas, diversifying into many hundreds of culturally distinct tribes.[32] The Paleo-Indians werehunter-gatherers, likely characterized by small, mobile bands consisting of approximately 20 to 50 members of an extended family. These groups moved from place to place as preferred resources were depleted and new supplies were sought.[33] During much of the Paleo-Indian period, bands are thought to have subsisted primarily through hunting now-extinctgiant land animals such asmastodon andancient bison.[34] Paleo-Indian groups carried a variety of tools, including distinctive projectile points and knives, as well as less distinctive butchering and hide-scraping implements.
The vastness of the North American continent, and the variety of its climates,ecology,vegetation,fauna, and landforms, led ancient peoples to coalesce into many distinctlinguistic and cultural groups.[35] This is reflected in the oral histories of the indigenous peoples, described by a wide range of traditionalcreation stories which often say that a given people have been living in a certain territory since the creation of the world.
Throughout thousands of years, paleo-Indian people domesticated, bred, and cultivated many plant species, including crops that now constitute 50–60% of worldwide agriculture.[36] In general, Arctic, Subarctic, and coastal peoples continued to live as hunters and gatherers, whileagriculture was adopted in more temperate and sheltered regions, permitting a dramatic rise in population.[31]
Major cultural areas of the pre-Columbian Americas: Arctic Northwest Aridoamerica Mesoamerica Isthmo-Colombian Caribbean Amazon Andes
After the migration or migrations, it was several thousand years before the first complex societies arose, the earliest emerging about seven to eight thousand years ago.[citation needed] As early as 5500 BCE, people in the Lower Mississippi Valley at Monte Sano and other sites in present-dayLouisiana,Mississippi, andFlorida were building complexearthworkmounds, probably for religious purposes. Beginning in the late twentieth century, archeologists have studied, analyzed, and dated these sites, realizing that the earliest complexes were built byhunter-gatherer societies, whose people occupied the sites on a seasonal basis.[37]Watson Brake, a large complex of eleven platform mounds, was constructed beginning in 3400 BCE and added to over 500 years. This has changed earlier assumptions that complex construction arose only after societies had adopted agriculture, and become sedentary, with stratified hierarchy and usually ceramics. These ancient people had organized to build complex mound projects under a different social structure.
Until the accurate dating of Watson Brake and similar sites, the oldest mound complex was thought to bePoverty Point, also located in theLower Mississippi Valley. Built about 1500 BCE, it is the centerpiece of a culture extending over 100 sites on both sides of theMississippi. The Poverty Point site has earthworks in the form of six concentric half-circles, divided by radial aisles, together with some mounds. The entire complex is nearly a mile across.
Mound building was continued by succeeding cultures, who built numerous sites in the middle Mississippi andOhio River valleys as well, addingeffigy mounds, conical and ridge mounds, and other shapes.
TheWoodland period of North American pre-Columbian cultures lasted from roughly 1000 BCE to 1000 CE. The term was coined in the 1930s and refers to prehistoric sites between theArchaic period and theMississippian cultures. TheAdena culture and the ensuingHopewell tradition during this period built monumental earthwork architecture and established continent-spanning trade and exchange networks.
This period is considered a developmental stage without any massive changes in a short period but instead has a continuous development in stone and bone tools, leatherworking, textile manufacture, tool production, cultivation, and shelter construction. Some Woodland people continued to use spears andatlatls until the end of the period when they were replaced bybows and arrows.
The Mississippian culture was spread across the Southeast and Midwest of what is today the United States, from the Atlantic coast to the edge of the plains, from the Gulf of Mexico to the Upper Midwest, although most intensively in the area along theMississippi River andOhio River. One of the distinguishing features of this culture was the construction of complexes of large earthenmounds and grand plazas, continuing themound-building traditions of earlier cultures. They grewmaize and other crops intensively, participated in an extensive trade network, and had a complex stratified society. The Mississippians first appeared around 1000 CE, following and developing out of the less agriculturally intensive and less centralized Woodland period. The largest urban site of these people,Cahokia—located near modernEast St. Louis, Illinois—may have reached a population of over 20,000. Other chiefdoms were constructed throughout the Southeast, and its trade networks reached to the Great Lakes and the Gulf of Mexico. At its peak, between the 12th and 13th centuries, Cahokia was the most populous city in North America. (Larger cities did exist in Mesoamerica and the Andes.)Monks Mound, the major ceremonial center of Cahokia, remains the largest earthen construction of the prehistoricAmericas. The culture reached its peak in about 1200–1400 CE, and in most places, it seems to have been in decline before the arrival of Europeans.[citation needed]
ManyMississippian peoples were encountered by the expedition ofHernando de Soto in the 1540s, mostly with disastrous results for both sides. Unlike the Spanish expeditions in Mesoamerica, which conquered vast empires with relatively few men, the de Soto expedition wandered the American Southeast for four years, becoming more bedraggled, losing more men and equipment, and eventually arriving inMexico as a fraction of its original size. The local people fared much worse though, as the fatalities of diseases introduced by the expedition devastated the populations and produced much social disruption. By the time Europeans returned a hundred years later, nearly all of the Mississippian groups had vanished, and vast swaths of their territory were virtually uninhabited.[38]
The Ancestral Puebloans thrived in what is now theFour Corners region in the United States. It is commonly suggested that the culture of the Ancestral Puebloans emerged during theEarly Basketmaker II Era during the 12th century BCE. The Ancestral Puebloans were a complexOasisamerican society that constructedkivas, multi-story houses, and apartment blocks made from stone and adobe, such as theCliff Palace ofMesa Verde National Park in Colorado and theGreat Houses inChaco Canyon,New Mexico. The Puebloans also constructed aroad system that stretched from Chaco Canyon to Kutz Canyon in theSan Juan Basin.[39] The Ancestral Puebloans are also known as "Anasazi", though the term is controversial, as the present-dayPueblo peoples consider the term to be derogatory, due to the word tracing its origins to aNavajo word meaning "ancestor enemies".[40]
The Hohokam thrived in theSonoran desert in what is now the U.S. state of Arizona and the Mexican state ofSonora. The Hohokam were responsible for the construction of a series of irrigation canals that led to the successful establishment ofPhoenix, Arizona via theSalt River Project. The Hohokam also established complex settlements such asSnaketown, which served as an important commercial trading center. After 1375 CE, Hohokam society collapsed and the people abandoned their settlements, likely due to drought.
The Mogollon resided in the present-day states ofArizona, New Mexico, andTexas as well asSonora andChihuahua. Like most other cultures in Oasisamerica, the Mogollon constructed sophisticated kivas and cliff dwellings. In the village ofPaquimé, the Mogollon are revealed to have housed pens forscarlet macaws, which were introduced fromMesoamerica through trade.[41]
The Sinagua were hunter-gatherers and agriculturalists who lived in central Arizona. Like the Hohokam, they constructed kivas and great houses as well asballcourts. Several of the Sinagua ruins includeMontezuma Castle,Wupatki, andTuzigoot.
The Salado resided in theTonto Basin in southeastern Arizona from 1150 CE to the 15th century. Archaeological evidence suggests that they traded with far-away cultures, as evidenced by the presence of seashells from theGulf of California andmacaw feathers from Mexico. Most of the cliff dwellings constructed by the Salado are primarily located inTonto National Monument.
TheIroquois League of Nations or "People of the Long House" was a politically advanced, democratic society, which is thought by some historians to have influenced theUnited States Constitution,[42][43] with theSenate passing a resolution to this effect in 1988.[44] Other historians have contested this interpretation and believe the impact was minimal or did not exist, pointing to numerous differences between the two systems and the ample precedents for the constitution in European political thought.[45][46][47]
The Calusa were a complex paramountcy/kingdom that resided in southernFlorida. Instead of agriculture, the Calusa economy relied on abundant fishing. According to Spanish sources, the "king's house" atMound Key was large enough to house 2,000 people.[48] The Calusa ultimately collapsed into extinction at around 1750 after succumbing to diseases introduced by the Spanish colonists.
TheWichita people were a loose confederation that consisted of sedentary agriculturalists and hunter-gatherers who resided in the easternGreat Plains. They lived in permanent settlements and even established a city calledEtzanoa, which had a population of 20,000 people. The city was eventually abandoned around the 18th century after it was encountered by Spanish conquistadorsJusepe Gutierrez andJuan de Oñate.
When the Europeans arrived,Indigenous peoples of North America had a wide range of lifeways from sedentary, agrarian societies to semi-nomadichunter-gatherer societies. Many formed newtribes or confederations in response to European colonization. These are often classified bycultural regions, loosely based on geography. These can include the following:
Numerous pre-Columbian societies were sedentary, such as theTlingit,Haida,Chumash,Mandan,Hidatsa, and others, and some established large settlements, even cities, such asCahokia, in what is nowIllinois.
One of the pyramids in the upper level ofYaxchilán
Mesoamerica is the region extending from central Mexico south to the northwestern border ofCosta Rica that gave rise to a group of stratified, culturally related agrarian civilizations spanning an approximately 3,000-year period before the visits to the Caribbean by Christopher Columbus.Mesoamerican is the adjective generally used to refer to that group of pre-Columbian cultures. This refers to an environmental area occupied by an assortment of ancient cultures that shared religious beliefs, art, architecture, and technology in the Americas for more than three thousand years. Between 2000 and 300 BCE, complex cultures began to form in Mesoamerica. Some matured into advanced pre-Columbian Mesoamerican civilizations such as theOlmec,Teotihuacan,Mayas,Zapotecs,Mixtecs,Huastecs,Purepecha,Toltecs, andMexica/Aztecs. The Mexica civilization is also known as theAztec Triple Alliance since they were three smaller kingdoms loosely united together.[49]
These Indigenous civilizations are credited with many inventions: buildingpyramid temples,mathematics,astronomy, medicine, writing, highly accuratecalendars,fine arts, intensive agriculture,engineering, anabacus calculator, and complextheology. They also invented the wheel, but it was used solely as a toy. In addition, they used nativecopper,silver, andgold for metalworking.
Archaic inscriptions on rocks and rock walls all over northern Mexico (especially in the state ofNuevo León) demonstrate an early propensity for counting. Their number system wasbase 20 and includedzero. These early count markings were associated with astronomical events and underscore the influence that astronomical activities had upon Mesoamerican people before the arrival of Europeans. Many of the later Mesoamerican civilizations carefully built their cities and ceremonial centers according to specific astronomical events.
The biggest Mesoamerican cities, such asTeotihuacan,Tenochtitlan, andCholula, were among the largest in the world. These cities grew as centers of commerce, ideas, ceremonies, and theology, and they radiated influence outwards onto neighboring cultures in central Mexico.
While many city-states, kingdoms, and empires competed with one another for power and prestige, Mesoamerica can be said to have had five major civilizations: the Olmecs, Teotihuacan, the Toltecs, the Mexica, and the Mayas. These civilizations (except for the politically fragmented Maya) extended their reach across Mesoamerica—and beyond—like no others. They consolidated power and distributed influence in matters of trade, art, politics, technology, and theology. Other regional power players made economic and political alliances with these civilizations over 4,000 years. Many made war with them, but almost all peoples found themselves within one of their spheres of influence.
Regional communications in ancient Mesoamerica have been the subject of considerable research. There is evidence of trade routes starting as far north as theMexico Central Plateau, and going down to the Pacific coast. These trade routes and cultural contacts then went on as far asCentral America. These networks operated with various interruptions from pre-Olmec times and up to the Late Classical Period (600–900 CE).
The earliest known civilization in Mesoamerica is the Olmec. This civilization established the cultural blueprint by which all succeeding indigenous civilizations would follow in Mexico. Pre-Olmec civilization began with the production of pottery in abundance, around 2300 BCE in theGrijalva River delta. Between 1600 and 1500 BCE, the Olmec civilization had begun, with the consolidation of power at their capital, a site today known asSan Lorenzo Tenochtitlán near the coast in southeastVeracruz.[50] The Olmec influence extended across Mexico, intoCentral America, and along theGulf of Mexico. They transformed many peoples' thinking toward a new way of government, pyramid temples, writing, astronomy, art, mathematics, economics, and religion. Their achievements paved the way for the Maya civilization and the civilizations in central Mexico.
The decline of the Olmec resulted in a power vacuum in Mexico. Emerging from that vacuum was Teotihuacan, first settled in 300 BCE. By 150 CE, Teotihuacan had risen to become the first truemetropolis of what is now called North America. Teotihuacan established a new economic and political order never before seen in Mexico. Its influence stretched across Mexico into Central America, founding new dynasties in the Maya cities ofTikal,Copan, andKaminaljuyú. Teotihuacan's influence over the Maya civilization cannot be overstated: it transformed political power, artistic depictions, and the nature of economics. Within the city of Teotihuacan was a diverse and cosmopolitan population. Most of the regional ethnicities of Mexico were represented in the city, such asZapotecs from the Oaxaca region. They lived in apartment communities where they worked their trades and contributed to the city's economic and cultural prowess. Teotihuacan's economic pull impacted areas in northern Mexico as well. It was a city whose monumental architecture reflected a monumental new era in Mexican civilization, declining in political power about 650 CE—but lasting in cultural influence for the better part of a millennium, to around 950 CE.
Contemporary to Teotihuacan's greatness was that of the Maya civilization. The period between 250 CE and 650 CE was a time of intense flourishing of Maya civilized accomplishments. While the many Maya city-states never achieved political unity on the order of the central Mexican civilizations, they exerted tremendous intellectual influence upon Mexico and Central America. The Maya built some of the most elaborate cities on the continent and made innovations in mathematics, astronomy, and calendrics. The Maya also developed the only true writing system[citation needed] native to the Americas using pictographs and syllabic elements in the form oftexts andcodices inscribed on stone, pottery, wood, or perishable books made from bark paper.
The Huastecs were aMaya ethnic group that migrated northwards to the Gulf Coast of Mexico.[51] The Huastecs are considered to be distinct from the Maya civilization, as they separated from the main Maya branch at around 2000 BCE and did not possess theMaya script.[52][53] Other accounts also suggest that the Huastecs migrated as a result of theClassic Maya collapse around the year 900 CE.
The Zapotecs were a civilization that thrived in theOaxaca Valley from the late 6th century BCE until their downfall at the hands of the Spanish conquistadors. The city ofMonte Albán was an important religious center for the Zapotecs and served as the capital of the empire from 700 BCE to 700 CE. The Zapotecs resisted the expansion of the Aztecs until they were subjugated in 1502 under Aztec emperorAhuitzotl. After theSpanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, the Zapotecs resisted Spanish rule until KingCosijopii I surrendered in 1563.
Like the Zapotecs, the Mixtecs thrived in the Oaxaca Valley. The Mixtecs consisted of separate independent kingdoms and city-states, rather than a single unified empire. The Mixtecs would eventually be conquered by the Aztecs until the Spanish conquest. The Mixtecs saw the Spanish conquest as an opportunity for liberation and established agreements with the conquistadors that allowed them to preserve their cultural traditions, though relatively few sections resisted Spanish rule.
The Totonac civilization was concentrated in the present-day states ofVeracruz andPuebla. The Totonacs were responsible for the establishment of cities, such asEl Tajín as important commercial trading centers. The Totonacs would later assist in theSpanish conquest of the Aztec Empire as an opportunity to liberate themselves from Aztec military imperialism.
The Toltec civilization was established in the 8th century CE. The Toltec Empire expanded its political borders to as far south as theYucatán peninsula, including the Maya city ofChichen Itza. The Toltecs established vast trading relations with other Mesoamerican civilizations in Central America and thePuebloans in present-dayNew Mexico. During the Post-Classic era, the Toltecs suffered a subsequent collapse in the early 12th century, due to famine and civil war.[54] The Toltec civilization was so influential to the point where many groups such as the Aztecs claimed to be descended from.[55][56]
With the decline of theToltec civilization came political fragmentation in theValley of Mexico. Into this new political game of contenders to the Toltec throne stepped outsiders: theMexica. They were also a desert people, one of seven groups who formerly called themselves "Azteca", in memory ofAztlán, but they changed their name after years of migrating. Since they were not from theValley of Mexico, they were initially seen as crude and unrefined in the ways of theNahua civilization. Through political maneuvers and ferocious martial skills, they managed to rule Mexico as the head of the 'Triple Alliance' which included two other Aztec cities,Tetxcoco andTlacopan.
Latecomers to Mexico's centralplateau, the Mexica thought of themselves, nevertheless, as heirs of the civilizations that had preceded them. For them, arts, sculpture, architecture, engraving, feather-mosaic work, and the calendar, were bequest from the former inhabitants of Tula, the Toltecs.
The Mexica-Aztecs were the rulers of much of central Mexico by about 1400 (whileYaquis, Coras, andApaches commanded sizable regions of northern desert), having subjugated most of the other regional states by the 1470s. At their peak, the Valley of Mexico where the Aztec Empire presided, saw a population growth that included nearly one million people during the late Aztec period (1350–1519).[57]
Their capital,Tenochtitlan, is the site of modern-dayMexico City. At its peak, it was one of the largest cities in the world with population estimates of 200,000–300,000.[58] The market established there was the largest ever seen by theconquistadores on arrival.
Initially, the lands that would someday comprise the lands of the powerful Tarascan Empire were inhabited by several independent communities. Around 1300, however, the first Cazonci, Tariacuri, united these communities and built them into one of the most advanced civilizations in Mesoamerica. Their capital at Tzintzuntzan was just one of the many cities—there were ninety more under its control. The Tarascan Empire was among the largest in Central America, so it is no surprise that they routinely came into conflict with the neighboringAztec Empire. Out of all the civilizations in its area, the Tarascan Empire was the most prominent in metallurgy, harnessing copper, silver, and gold to create items such as tools, decorations, and even weapons and armor. Bronze was also used. The great victories over the Aztecs by the Tarascans cannot be understated. Nearly every war they fought in resulted in a Tarascan victory. Because the Tarascan Empire had little links to the formerToltec Empire, they were also quite independent in culture from their neighbors. The Aztecs,Tlaxcaltec, Olmec, Mixtec, Maya, and others were very similar to each other, however. This is because they were all directly preceded by the Toltecs, and they therefore shared almost identical cultures. The Tarascans, however, possessed a unique religion, as well as other things.[vague]
Tlaxcala was a Nahua republic and confederation in central Mexico. The Tlaxcalans fiercely resisted Aztec expansion during theFlower Wars ever since the Aztecs expelled them fromLake Texcoco. The Tlaxcalans would later ally with the Spanish conquistadors underHernán Cortés as an opportunity to liberate them from the Aztecs and managed to successfully conquer the Aztecs with the help of the conquistadors. The Spaniards would reward the Tlaxcalans for preserving their culture and for their assistance in defeating the Aztecs. The Tlaxcalans would once again assist to the Spaniards during theMixtón War and theconquest of Guatemala.[59]
The Lenca people were composed of several distinct multilingual confederations and city-states in present-day El Salvador andHonduras. Cities such asYarumela were important commercial centers for the Lenca. During the Spanish conquest, several Lenca leaders such asLempira resisted conversion to Christianity, while others converted peacefully.
The Nicoya kingdom was an elective monarchy that thrived in theNicoya peninsula inCosta Rica.[72] It existed from 800 CE until the Spanish arrival in the 16th century.
By the first millennium, South America's vast rainforests, mountains, plains, and coasts were the home of millions of people. Estimates vary, but 30–50 million are often given, and 100 million by some estimates. Some groups formed permanent settlements. Among those groups wereChibcha-speaking peoples ("Muisca" or "Muysca"), Valdivia,Quimbaya,Calima,Marajoara culture, and theTairona. TheMuisca ofColombia, postdating theHerrera Period,Valdivia ofEcuador, theQuechuas, and theAymara ofPeru andBolivia were the four most important sedentary Amerindian groups in South America. Since the 1970s, numerousgeoglyphs have been discovered ondeforested land in theAmazon rainforest,Brazil, supporting Spanish accounts of complex and ancient Amazonian civilizations, such asKuhikugu.[73][74] TheUpano Valley sites in present-day eastern Ecuador predate all known complex Amazonian societies.[75]
Thetheory of pre-Columbian contact across the South Pacific Ocean between South America andPolynesia has received support from several lines of evidence, although solid confirmation remains elusive. A diffusion by human agents has been put forward to explain the pre-Columbian presence inOceania of severalcultivated plant species native to South America, such as thebottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria) orsweet potato (Ipomoea batatas). Direct archaeological evidence for such pre-Columbian contacts and transport has not emerged. Similarities noted in the names of edible roots in Maori and Ecuadorian languages ("kumari") and Melanesian and Chilean ("gaddu") have been inconclusive.[76]
A 2007 paper published inPNAS put forwardDNA and archaeological evidence that domesticatedchickens had been introduced into South America via Polynesia by late pre-Columbian times.[77] These findings were challenged by a later study published in the same journal, that cast doubt on the dating calibration used and presented alternativemtDNA analyses that disagreed with a Polynesian genetic origin.[78] The origin and dating remain an open issue. Whether or not early Polynesian–American exchanges occurred, no compelling human-genetic, archaeological, cultural, or linguistic legacy of such contact has turned up.
On the north-central coast of present-dayPeru, Norte Chico or Caral-Supe (as known in Peru) was a civilization that emerged around 3200 BCE (contemporary with urbanism's rise inMesopotamia).[49] It had a cluster of large-scale urban settlements of which theSacred City of Caral, in the Supe Valley, is one of the largest and best-studied sites. The civilization did not know machinery or pottery but still managed to develop trade, especially cotton and dehydrated fish. It was a hierarchical society that managed its ecosystems and had intercultural exchange. Its economy was heavily dependent on agriculture and fishing on the nearby coast.[79] It is considered one of thecradles of civilization in the world[49] and Caral-Supe is the oldest knowncivilization in theAmericas.[80]
TheValdivia culture was concentrated on the coast ofEcuador. Their existence was recently discovered by archeological findings. Their culture is among the oldest found in the Americas, spanning from 3500 to 1800 BCE. The Valdivia lived in a community of houses built in a circle or oval around a central plaza. They were sedentary people who lived off farming and fishing, though occasionally they hunted for deer. From the remains that have been found, scholars have determined that Valdivians cultivatedmaize,kidney beans,squash,cassava,chili peppers, andcotton plants, the last of which was used to make clothing. Valdivian pottery initially was rough and practical, but it became showy, delicate, and big over time. They generally used red and gray colors, and the polished dark red pottery is characteristic of the Valdivia period. In its ceramics and stone works, the Valdivia culture shows a progression from the most simple to much more complicated works.
The Cañari were the indigenous natives of today's Ecuadorian provinces ofCañar andAzuay. They were an elaborate civilization with advanced architecture and complex religious beliefs. The Inca destroyed and burned most of their remains. The Cañari's old city was replaced twice, first by the Incan city ofTumebamba and later on the same site by the colonial city ofCuenca. The city was also believed to be the site ofEl Dorado, the city of gold from the mythology of Colombia.
The Cañari were most notable for having repelled the Incan invasion with fierce resistance for many years until they fell toTupac Yupanqui. Many of their descendants are still present in Cañar. The majority did not mix with the colonists or become Mestizos.
The Chavín, a Peruvian preliterate civilization, established a trade network and developed agriculture by 900 BCE, according to some estimates and archeological finds. Artifacts were found at a site calledChavín de Huántar in modern Peru at an elevation of 3,177 meters (10,423 ft). The Chavín civilization spanned from 900 to 300 BCE.
TheChibcha-speaking communities were the most numerous, the most territorially extended and the most socio-economically developed of the pre-Hispanic Colombians. By the 8th century, the indigenous people had established their civilization in the northernAndes. At one point, the Chibchas occupied part of what is nowPanama, and the high plains of the Eastern Sierra ofColombia.
The areas that they occupied in Colombia were the present-day Departments ofSantander (North and South),Boyacá, andCundinamarca. This is where the first farms and industries were developed. It is also where the independence movement originated. They are currently the richest areas in Colombia. The Chibcha developed the most populous zone between theMaya region and theInca Empire. Next to theQuechua ofPeru and theAymara inBolivia, the Chibcha of the eastern and north-eastern Highlands of Colombia developed the most notable culture among thesedentary Indigenous peoples in South America.
In the Colombian Andes, the Chibcha comprised several tribes who spoke similar languages (Chibcha). They included the following: theMuisca,Guane,Lache,Cofán, andChitareros.
The Tairona civilization thrived in theSierra Nevada de Santa Marta mountain range in northernColombia. Studies suggest that the civilization thrived from the 1st century CE until the Spanish arrival in the 16th century. The descendants of the Tairona, such as theKogi were one of the few indigenous groups in the Americas to have escaped full colonial conquest and retain a majority of their indigenous cultures.
The Moche thrived on the north coast of Peru from about 100 to 800 CE. The heritage of the Moche is seen in their elaborate burials. Some were recently excavated byUCLA'sChristopher B. Donnan in association with theNational Geographic Society.
As skilled artisans, the Moche were a technologically advanced people. They traded with distant peoples such as the Maya. What has been learned about the Moche is based on the study of their ceramic pottery; the carvings reveal details of their daily lives. TheLarco Museum ofLima, Peru, has an extensive collection of such ceramics. They show that the people practicedhuman sacrifice, had blood-drinking rituals and that their religion incorporated non-procreative sexual practices (such asfellatio).
The Wari Empire was located in the western portion of Peru and existed from the 6th century to the 11th century.Wari, as the former capital city was called, is located 11 km (6.8 mi) northeast of the city ofAyacucho. This city was the center of a civilization that covered much of the highlands and coast of Peru. The best-preserved remnants, besides theWari Ruins, are the recently discoveredNorthern Wari ruins near the city ofChiclayo, and Cerro Baul inMoquegua. Also well-known are the Wari ruins ofPikillaqta ("Flea Town"), a short distance southeast of theCuscoen route toLake Titicaca.
The Tiwanaku empire was based in westernBolivia and extended into present-dayPeru andChile from 300 to 1000 CE. Tiwanaku is recognized by Andean scholars as one of the most important South American civilizations before the birth of theInca Empire in Peru; it was the ritual and administrative capital of a major state power for approximately five hundred years. The ruins of the ancient city state are near the south-eastern shore ofLake Titicaca inTiwanaku Municipality,Ingavi Province,La Paz Department, about 72 kilometres (45 miles) west ofLa Paz.
Holding their capital at the greatcougar-shaped city ofCusco, Peru, the Inca civilization dominated the Andes region from 1438 to 1533. Known asTawantinsuyu, or "the land of the four regions", inQuechua, the Inca civilization was highly distinct and developed. Inca rule extended to nearly a hundred linguistic or ethnic communities, some 9 to 14 million people connected by a 40,000-kilometerroad system. Cities were built with precise stonework, constructed over many levels of mountain terrain.Terrace farming was a useful form of agriculture. There is evidence of excellent metalwork and even successfulbrain surgery in the Inca civilization.
The iconicMachu Picchu, symbol of the Inca civilization
The Aymara kingdoms consisted of a confederation of separate diarchies that lasted from 1151 after the fall of Tiwanaku until 1477 when they were conquered by the Inca Empire. The Aymara kingdoms were primarily located in theAltiplano in Bolivia as well as some parts of Peru andChile.
Taima-Taima, yellow Muaco, and El Jobo in Falcón are some of the sites that have yielded archeological material from these times.[83] These groups co-existed with megafauna likemegatherium,glyptodonts, andtoxodonts.
It is not known how many people lived in Venezuela before theSpanish Conquest; it may have been around a million people,[84] in addition to today's peoples included groups such as theArawaks,Caribs, andTimoto-cuicas. The number was much reduced after the Conquest, mainly through the spread of new diseases from Europe.[84] There were two main north–south axes of the pre-Columbian population, producingmaize in the west andmanioc in the east.[84] Large parts of theLlanos plains were cultivated through a combination ofslash-and-burn and permanent settled agriculture basically maize and tobacco.[84] The indigenous peoples of Venezuela had already encountered crudeoils and asphalts that seeped up through the ground to the surface. Known to the locals asmene, the thick, black liquid was primarily used for medicinal purposes, as an illumination source, and for the caulking of canoes.[85]
The Diaguita consisted of several distinct chiefdoms across theArgentine Northwest. The Diaguita culture emerged around 1000 CE after the replacement of theLas Ánimas complex.[86] The Diaguita resisted Spanish colonialism during theCalchaquí Wars until they were forced to surrender and submit to Spanish rule in 1667.[87]
The Taíno people were fragmented into numerous chiefdoms across theGreater Antilles, theLucayan Archipelago, and the northernLesser Antilles. The Taíno were the first pre-Columbian people to encounterChristopher Columbus during his voyage in 1492.[88] The Taíno would later be subject to slavery by the Spanish colonists under theencomienda system until they were deemed virtually extinct in 1565.
The Huetar people were a major ethnic group that lived in Costa Rica. The Huetar were composed of several independent kingdoms, such as thewestern kingdom ruled byGarabito and theeastern kingdom ruled byEl Guarco andCorreque. After their annexation into Spanish administration, the descendants of the Huetar currently reside in theQuitirrisíreserve.
The Marajoara culture flourished onMarajó Island at the mouth of the Amazon River in northern Brazil between 800 and 1400 CE. The Marajoara consisted of a complex society that built mounds and constructed sophisticated settlements. The indigenous people of the area adopted methods of large-scale agriculture through the use ofterra preta, which would support complex chiefdoms. Studies suggest that the civilization housed around 100,000 inhabitants.
Located in theXingu Indigenous Park in Brazil, Kuhikugu consisted of an urban complex that housed around 50,000 inhabitants and 20 settlements. The civilization was likely established by the ancestors of theKuikuro people. The people also constructed roads, bridges, and trenches for defensive purposes and were purported to be farmers, as evidenced by the fields of cassava and the use ofterra preta. Like most other Amazonian civilizations, the disappearance of Kuhikugu was largely attributed to Old World diseases introduced by European colonists.[89]
Also known as the Omagua, Umana, and Kambeba, the Cambeba are anindigenous people in Brazil'sAmazon basin. The Cambeba were a populous, organized society in the late pre-Columbian era whose population suffered a steep decline in the early years of theColumbian Exchange. The Spanish explorerFrancisco de Orellana traversed theAmazon River during the 16th century and reported densely populated regions running hundreds of kilometers along the river. These populations left no lasting monuments, possibly because they used local wood as their construction material as stone was not locally available. While it is possible Orellana may have exaggerated the level of development among the Amazonians, their semi-nomadic descendants have the odd distinction among tribal indigenous societies of a hereditary, yet landless,aristocracy. Archaeological evidence has revealed the continued presence of semi-domesticated orchards, as well as vast areas of land enriched withterra preta. Both of these discoveries, along with Cambeba ceramics discovered within the same archaeological levels suggest that a large and organized civilization existed in the area.[90]
In theUpano River valley of easternEcuador, several cities were established by the Upano and Kilamope cultures around 500 BCE.[91][92] The cities in the Upano Valley consisted of agricultural societies that cultivated crops such ascorn,manioc andsweet potato. The cities fell into decline around 600 CE.[93]
Early Indigenous peoples began using fire in a widespread manner. Intentional burning of vegetation was taken up to mimic the effects of natural fires that tended to clear forest understories, thereby making travel easier and facilitating the growth of herbs and berry-producing plants that were important for both food and medicines. This created thepre-Columbian savannas of North America.[94]
While not as widespread as inAfro-Eurasia, indigenous Americans did havelivestock.Domesticated turkeys were common in Mesoamerica and some regions of North America; they were valued for their meat, feathers, and, possibly, eggs. There is documentation of Mesoamericans utilizing hairless dogs, especially theXoloitzcuintle breed, for their meat. Andean societies hadllamas andalpacas for meat and wool, as well as forbeasts of burden.Guinea pigs were raised for meat in theAndes.Iguanas and a range of wild animals, such as deer andpecari, were another source of meat in Mexico, Central, and northern South America.
^abTymchuk, Wendy (2008)."Learn about Y-DNA Haplogroup Q-M242". Genebase Systems. Archived fromthe original on 22 June 2010.Haplogroups are defined by unique mutation events such as single nucleotide polymorphisms, or SNPs. These SNPs mark the branch of a haplogroup, and indicate that all descendants of that haplogroup at one time shared a common ancestor. The Y-DNA SNP mutations were passed from father to son over thousands of years. Over time, additional SNPs occur within a haplogroup, leading to new lineages. These new lineages are considered subclades of the haplogroup. Each time a new mutation occurs, there is a new branch in the haplogroup, and therefore a new subclade. Haplogroup Q, possibly the youngest of the 20 Y-chromosome haplogroups, originated with the SNP mutation M242 in a man from Haplogroup P that likely lived in Siberia approximately 15,000 to 20,000 years before present
^Viegas, Jennifer."First Americans Endured 20,000-Year Layover".Discovery News. Archived fromthe original on 13 March 2012.Archaeological evidence, in fact, recognizes that people started to leave Beringia for the New World around 40,000 years ago, but rapid expansion into North America didn't occur until about 15,000 years ago, when the ice had literally broken
^Than, Ker (2008)."New World Settlers Took 20,000-Year Pit Stop". National Geographic Society. Archived fromthe original on 19 February 2008.Over time descendants developed a unique culture—one that was different from the original migrants' way of life in Asia but which contained seeds of the new cultures that would eventually appear throughout the Americas
^Saillard, Juliette; Forster, Peter; Lynnerup, Niels; Bandelt, Hans-Jürgen; Nørby, Søren (September 2000)."mtDNA Variation among Greenland Eskimos: The Edge of the Beringian Expansion".American Journal of Human Genetics.67 (3):718–726.doi:10.1086/303038.PMC1287530.PMID10924403.The relatively lower coalescence time of the entire haplogroup A2 including the shared sub-arctic branches A2b (Siberians and Inuit) and A2a (Eskimos and Na-Dené) is probably due to secondary expansions of haplogroup A2 from the Beringia area, which would have averaged the overall internal variation of haplogroup A2 in North America.
^Meltzer, David J. (2009).First peoples in a new world: colonizing ice age America. Berkeley: University of California Press.ISBN978-0-520-94315-5.OCLC609850106.
^Bryant, Vaughn M. Jr. (1998)."Pre-Clovis". In Gibbon, Guy E. (ed.).Archaeology of Prehistoric Native America: An Encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis. pp. 682–683.ISBN978-0-8153-0725-9.
^Breitburg, Emanual; Broster, John B.; Reesman, Arthur L.; Stearns, Richard G. (1996). "Coats-Hines Site: Tennessee's First Paleo-Indian Mastodon Association".Current Research in the Pleistocene.13:6–8.
^Gibson, John L. "Navels of the Earth: Sedentism in Early Mound-Building Cultures in the Lower Mississippi Valley."World Archaeology, Vol. 38, No. 2 (June 2006), pp. 311-329. Stable URL:[1]. P. 311
^Historia general y natural de las Indias, islas y tierra-firme del mar océano; por el Capitán Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés; Primer Cronista del Nuevo Mundo; publícala la Real Academia de la Historia.- Tomo IV.- Libro XLII.- Capitulo XIII.
^Pärssinen, Martti; Schaan, Denise; Ranzi, Alceu (December 2009). "Pre-Columbian geometric earthworks in the upper Purús: a complex society in western Amazonia".Antiquity.83 (322):1084–1095.doi:10.1017/s0003598x00099373.S2CID55741813.
^Silverman, Helaine; Isbell, William (Eds.) (2008): Handbook of South American Archaeology 1st ed. 2008. Corr. 2nd printing, XXVI, 1192,ISBN978-0-387-74906-8. pp. 430, 433–434
^Lorandi, A.M. (1988). "Los diaguitas y el tawantinsuyu: Una hipótesis de conflicto". In Dillehay, Tom; Netherly, Patricia (eds.).La frontera del estado Inca (in Spanish). pp. 197–214.
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