Pounamumatau barbPounamuhei matau pendant, a heavily stylized fishhookThe southwest coast of New Zealand is namedTe Wai Pounamu ("The greenstone waters"), after its deposits of greenstone, and the area resembles greenstone in this view from space.[1] The term is also the officialMāori name for theSouth Island.
Pounamu is a term for several types of hard and durable stone found in theSouth Island of New Zealand. They are highly valued in New Zealand, andcarvings made from pounamu play an important role inMāori culture.
TheMāori wordpounamu is derived fromnamu, an archaic word that describesblue-green (or 'grue') cognate withTahitianninamu.[2]Pounamu, also used inNew Zealand English, in itself refers to two main types of green stone valued for carving:nephrite jade, classified by Māori askawakawa,kahurangi,īnanga, and other names depending on colour; and translucentbowenite, a type ofserpentine, known astangiwai. The collective term pounamu is preferred, as the other names in common use are misleading, such asNew Zealand jade (not all pounamu is jade) andgreenstone (a generic term used for unrelated stone from many countries). Pounamu is only found in New Zealand, whereas much of the carved "greenstone" sold in souvenir shops is jade sourced overseas.[3]
TheMāori classification of pounamu is by colour and appearance; the shade of green is matched against a colour found in nature, and some hues contain flecks of red or brown.[3][4]
Īnanga pounamu takes its name from the native freshwater fishGalaxias maculatus, one of the common whitebait species in New Zealand, and is pearly-white or grey-green in colour. It varies from translucent to opaque.[5] Īnanga was the variety most prized by Māori for ornaments andmere (short handled clubs).[3]
Kahurangi pounamu is highly translucent and has a vivid shade of light green with no spots or flaws. Its name is the Māori word for a person of high rank, and is the rarest variety of pounamu.[3] It was the preferred stone for making toki poutangata (ceremonial adzes) owned by rangatira (Māori chiefs).[6]
Kawakawa pounamu comes shades of rich dark green, often with small dark flecks or inclusions, and is named after the similarly-coloured leaves of the kawakawa tree (Piper excelsum). It is the most common variety of pounamu, and the most used in the manufacture of jewellery today.[7] One of its main sources is theTaramakau River on theWest Coast.[3]
Totoweka is a rare type of kawakawa with small reddish dots or streaks; its name means "weka blood" after the flightless birdGallirallus australis.[3]
Kōkopu pounamu is olive green and speckled with dark spots, reminiscent of the markings ofthree species of native freshwater fishes in the genusGalaxias that go by that name.[3]
Flower jade orpicture jade is pounamu with cream, yellow, or brown inclusions, from oxidising or weathering in the surface of the stone. Cracks or fissures in the stone can allow iron impurities to enter, and carvers can then make use of the resulting patterns. Flower jade is best known from the Marsden district near Hokitika.[3]
Tangiwai pounamu is translucent like glass, but in a wide range of shades. When viewed against the light it resembles a clear drop of water. The name means "the tears that come from great sorrow", and refers to a Māori legend of a lamenting woman whose tears turned to stone.[3][8]
Jade is formed from two different stones:jadeite andnephrite. Jadeite (sodium aluminium silicate) has interlocking granular crystals, while nephrite (calcium magnesium silicate) has crystals that are interwoven and fibrous. Jadeite is mostly found inMyanmar, while nephrite is found inEurope,British Columbia,Australia, andNew Zealand.[3] New Zealand nephrite contains varying amounts of iron, which account for its range of shades, richness of green, and translucency.[3]
Pounamu is generally found in rivers in specific parts of theSouth Island as nondescript boulders and stones. Pounamu has been formed in New Zealand in four main locations; theWest Coast,Fiordland, westernSouthland and theNelson district.[9][10][11] It is typically recovered from rivers and beaches where it has been transported to after being eroded from the mountains. The group of rocks where pounamu comes from are calledophiolites. Ophiolites are slices of the deep ocean crust and part of themantle. When these deep mantle rocks (serpentinite) and crustal rock (maficigneous rocks) are heated up (metamorphosed) together, pounamu can be formed at their contact.[12]
TheDun Mountain Ophiolite Belt has been metamorphosed in western Southland and pounamu from this belt is found along the eastern and northern edge of Fiordland.[13] The Anita BayDunite nearMilford Sound is a small but highly prized source of pounamu.[14] In the Southern Alps, the Pounamu Ultramafic Belt in theHaast Schist occurs as isolated pods which are eroded and found on West Coast rivers and beaches.[15]
One source of īnanga pounamu at the head ofLake Wakatipu is possibly the only jade mining site in the world with Government protection.[3]
Pounamu plays a very important role inMāori culture and is ataonga (treasure). It is and has been an important part of trade between the South Islandiwi (tribe)Ngāi Tahu and other iwi.Adze blades made from pounamu were desired for carving of wood, and even with the arrival of metal tools pounamu tools were used. These were often reworked intohei tiki (stylised human figures worn as pendants) and other taonga when they were no longer useful for carving wood. After the arrival of Ngāi Tahu in the South Island in the middle of the 18th century, the production of pounamu increased. Pounamu crafting and trade was important to the economy of Ngāi Tahu.[16]
Hei tiki; signs of wear indicate longevity of active possession due to the hard nature of the stone.Large pounamu boulder atTe Papa Tongarewa o Aotearoa
Pounamu taonga increase inmana (spiritual power or prestige) as they pass from one generation to another. Pounamu is believed to absorb the mana of its past owners, and some heirloom pieces are named after a former owner in memory of their position and authority.[3] The most prized taonga are those with known histories going back many generations: these are believed to have their own mana and were often given as gifts to seal important agreements.
Pounamu taonga include tools such astoki (adzes),whao (chisels),whao whakakōka (gouges),ripi pounamu (knives), scrapers, awls, hammer stones, and drill points. Hunting tools includematau (fishing hooks) and lures, spear points, andkākā poria (leg rings for fastening captive birds); weapons such asmere; and ornaments such as pendants (hei tiki,hei matau andpekapeka), ear pendants (kuru andkapeu), and cloak pins.[17][18] Functional pounamu tools were widely worn for both practical and ornamental reasons, and continued to be worn as purely ornamental pendants (hei kakī) even after they were no longer used as tools.[19]
Store selling carved pounamu inHokitika, New Zealand
Pounamu is found only in theSouth Island of New Zealand, known in Māori asTe Wai Pounamu ('The [land of] Greenstone Water') orTe Wahi Pounamu ('The Place of Greenstone').[20] In 1997the Crown handed back the ownership of all naturally occurring pounamu to the South Island iwi Ngāi Tahu (or Kāi Tahu),[21][22] as part of theNgāi Tahu Claims Settlement.
Pounamu was of such value to Māori that peace was cemented by the exchange of valuable carved heirlooms, creating what was figuratively called atautau pounamu (door of greenstone), as in the sayingMe tautau pounamu, kia kore ai e pakaru, ake, ake (Let conclude a peace treaty that may never be broken, for ever and ever).[23]
There were a dozen major pounamu trails used in the trading of pounamu[24] and many more minor routes. Parties of 6 to 12 are thought to have used the tracks in summer, particularly viaHarper Pass.[25]
Jewellery and other decorative items made from gold and pounamu were particularly fashionable in New Zealand in theVictorian andEdwardian years in the late 19th and early 20th century.[26][27] It continues to be popular among New Zealanders and is often given as gifts. In 2011, the New Zealand Prime MinisterJohn Key presented the President of the United States,Barack Obama with awahaika (a type of Māori weapon) created from pounamu carved by New Zealand artistAden Hoglund.[28]
An exhibition curated byTe Papa in 2007 calledKura Pounamu showcased 200 pounamu items from their collections and linked New Zealand and China through both the geographical location of nephrite and also the high level of artistry achieved in ancient China and then thousands of years later amongst Māori. The exhibition marked 40 years of diplomatic relations between countries when it toured to five venues in China in 2013.[29]
In the 2016 animated movieMoana the central premise is to return the stolen heart of Te Fiti which is manifest in a pounamu stone amulet.[30]
Fossicking for Pounamu is a cultural activity in New Zealand and allowed on designated areas of theWest Coast of the South Island (Te Tai o Poutini) and is limited to what can be carried unaided;[31][32] fossicking elsewhere in theKāi Tahu tribal area is illegal, while nephrite jade can be sourced legally and freely from Marlborough and Nelson. In 2009 David Anthony Saxton and his son Morgan David Saxton were sentenced to two and a half years imprisonment for stealing greenstone, with a helicopter, from the southern West Coast.[33]
^Best, Elsdon (1912).The Stone Implements of the Maori. Government Printer. p. 410.
^Coleman, Robert Griffin (1966).New Zealand serpentinites and associated metasomatic rocks. Dept. of Scientific and Industrial Research, N.Z. Geological Survey. p. 101.
^Coombs, D. S.; Landis, C. A.; Norris, R. J.; Sinton, J. M.; Borns, D. J.; Craw, D. (1976). "The Dun Mountain ophiolite belt, New Zealand, its tectonic setting, constitution, and origin, with special reference to the southern portion".American Journal of Science.276 (5):561–603.Bibcode:1976AmJS..276..561C.doi:10.2475/ajs.276.5.561.ISSN0002-9599.
^Coutts, P. J. F. (1971). "Greenstone: the prehistoric exploitation of bowenite from Anita Bay, Milford Sound".The Journal of the Polynesian Society.80 (1):42–73.
^Austin, Dougal (2019).Te hei tiki : an enduring treasure in a cultural continuum. Wellington, New Zealand: Te Papa Press.ISBN978-0-9951031-4-6.OCLC1118991633.
^"Pounamu taonga". Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa. Retrieved25 March 2019.
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![A kuru (straight earring). Kapeu are similar, but with curved ends, and are also used as teething aids.[34]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fwikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aEarring_(kuru)%2c_Maori_people%2c_Honolulu_Museum_of_Art%2c_3357.JPG)
![A kākā pōria, a bird leg ring used to fasten decoy birds used in hunting.[35]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fwikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aParrot_leg_ring_(poria-kaka)%2c_Maori_people%2c_Honolulu_Museum_of_Art%2c_3353.JPG)
