Piri Reis | |
|---|---|
 Statue of Piri Reis inKaraman, Turkey | |
| Born | Muhiddin Piri c. 1470 |
| Died | 1553 (aged 82–83) Cairo,Egypt Eyalet, Ottoman Empire |
| Notable work | |
| Relatives | Kemal Reis (uncle) |
Muhiddin Piri (c. 1470 – 1553), better known asPiri Reis (Turkish:PîrîReis), was an Ottomancartographer, admiral,navigator,corsair, andgeographer. He is primarily known today for his cartographic works, including his1513 world map and theKitab-ı Bahriye (Book of the Sea), a book with detailed information on early navigational techniques as well as relatively accurate charts for their time, describing theports and cities of theMediterranean Sea.
He was born inGelibolu—a majorOttoman naval base—and sailed from an early age with his uncleKemal Reis. They fought as corsairs in the Western Mediterranean until they were brought into theOttoman Navy. Piri Reis fought alongside Kemal Reis in theOttoman–Venetian wars. When his uncle died in 1511, Piri Reis returned to Gelibolu to begin his cartographic works. He created his first world map and likely began drafting the charts and notes that would form the basis of theKitab-ı Bahriye. By 1516, he returned to the navy and took part in theOttoman conquest of Egypt. After their victory, he presented the world map to SultanSelim I. WhenSuleiman the Magnificent became sultan, Piri Reis completed the first version of theKitab-ı Bahriye, which he dedicated and gifted to the sultan by 1521. Several years later, he created a more elaborate version at the urging of Grand VizierPargalı Ibrahim Pasha. His final surviving work is a 1528 world map, of which only the northwest corner remains (showingGreenland,Labrador,Newfoundland,Florida,Cuba,Hispaniola,Jamaica, andCentral America).
In 1546, Piri Reis becameHindKapudan-ı Derya, or grand admiral of theOttoman Fleet in the Indian Ocean, as well as admiral of the fleet in Egypt. He expanded the Indian Ocean fleet, retook several ports, and pushed the Portuguese out of the Red Sea. In the 1550s, he began a campaign to capture the Portuguese-controlledHormuz Island at the mouth of thePersian Gulf. He abandoned thesiege of Hormuz after several weeks, sacked the city, and looted the nearbyQeshm Island, where wealthy residents of Hormuz had evacuated. For failing to capture Hormuz, he was executed in 1553 inCairo.
His cartographic work received little appreciation during his own life. There is no evidence that theKitab-ı Bahriye circulated outside the royal palace before 1550. After his death, hundreds of copies of the book were likely made. Over 40 copies survive today, spanning several centuries. When his 1513 world map was unearthed at theTopkapı Palace inIstanbul in 1929, it drew international attention. The map relies on many sources, including a lost map of theCaribbean fromChristopher Columbus. This sparked greater interest in theKitab-ı Bahriye, and facsimiles of both were published. Piri Reis and his cartography have since become a point of national pride forTurkey.
Little is known about Piri Reis' background and early life.[1] He was likely born around 1470 inGelibolu on theDardanelles.[2] At the time, Gelibolu was a major naval base for theOttoman Empire.[1] He was born Muhiddin Piri;Reis was a military rank equivalent to captain.[3] His uncle wasKemal Reis.[4] Little is known about his parents.[5] Piri Reis gives his father's name as Hacı Mehmed.[4] It is not clear from historical records whether Piri was the son of Kemal Reis' brother or sister.[5] Kemal Reis had a brother-in-law fromNafpaktos who was arrested and tortured in Venice for alleged spying during theOttoman–Venetian wars. He was possibly Piri Reis' father.[6]
By age 12, he began sailing with his uncleKemal Reis.[4] Kemal was a notablecorsair,[7] a type ofpirate who acted with the approval of asovereign state.[8] Led by Kemal Reis, theBarbary pirates threatened European maritime traffic.[9] Piri Reis wrote of his early years, "We sailed on the Mediterranean and fought the enemies of our religion mercilessly."[10] He sailed with his uncle on raids, mainly on the coasts of Italy and Spain.[2] By 1490, they were operating out ofBéjaïa,Algeria.[11] As a corsair, Piri Reis captured many ships, a fortress nearMallorca, andPianosa near Corsica.[2] During theGranada War, Piri Reis transported Muslims and Jews fromSpain to North Africa.[10] During the winters, he and his uncle took shelter in favorable harbors on theBarbary Coast.[12]
Piri Reis sailed under his uncle and laterHayreddin Barbarossa in the Ottoman Navy.[13] To bolster the empire's navy, Ottoman SultanBayezid II recruitedBarbary andAegean corsairs, including Piri and Kemal.[14] Before Barbarossa reorganized the navy, sultans commonly employed former pirates.[15] The addition of experienced corsairs raised the Ottoman Navy's competence in open-sea combat and knowledge of the Mediterranean.[14]
In 1495, Kemal Reis was imprisoned onEuboea for piracy and brought to the capital,Constantinople. Rather than being sentenced, he was given an official position in the navy. Piri Reis was with his uncle through this and later documented it in theKitab-ı Bahriye.[16] In the empire's navy, Kemal and Piri advocated taking theVenetian coastal fortresses of thePeloponnese and the small but strategically valuable island ofRhodes.[17] In hisKitab-ı Bahriye, Piri Reis reports that his uncle had told SultanBayezid II, "Venice has two eyes: Her left eye is the [harbor] fortress ofModon. Her right eye is that ofCorfu."[18]
Piri Reis took part in theOttoman–Venetian wars, including theFirst Battle of Lepanto (Battle of Zonchio),Second Battle of Lepanto (Battle of Modon), and 1501 conquest ofNavarino.[2][19] During the First Battle of Lepanto, Piri Reis was one of many corsairs in a fleet of about 270 ships that fought through the Venetian fleet and entered theGulf of Corinth, forcing the governor to surrender.[20] Kemal Reis led the Ottomans in the battles to take the fortresses at Modon and Navarino.[21] After the Ottoman navy defeated the Venetian fleet at the Peloponnese, they began to take control of the Eastern Mediterranean.[22] In the early 1500s, Kemal Reis ledraids on the Balearic Islands,Sardinia, andPianosa in the western Mediterranean.[23] In one naval battle, Piri Reis and his uncle captured a Spaniard who had participated inColumbus's voyages,[24][25] and likely possessed an early map of the Americas that Piri Reis would use as a source for his maps.[26]
When his uncle died in a 1511 shipwreck in the Mediterranean, Piri Reis returned to Gelibolu to work on his navigational studies.[27] The finished manuscript of his first world map was dated to the month ofMuharram in theIslamic year 919 AH, equivalent to March 1513 AD.[28][29] This work included the recently explored shores of the Americas and Africa.[30] Although he had never sailed the Atlantic, he compiled over twenty maps of Arab, Spanish, Portuguese, Indian and older Greek origins into a comprehensive representation of the known world of his era.[31] At least by 1513, Piri Reis was sailing again for the Ottomans under Hayreddin Barbarossa along the coast of North Africa.[32]
By 1516, Piri Reis returned to the navy as captain of a galley in the Ottoman fleet and took part in the1516–17 Ottoman conquest of Egypt.[2][33] He was the commander of the Turkish fleet that blockaded Alexandria.[34] After the Ottoman victory,[33] Piri Reis presented the 1513 world map to SultanSelim I (r. 1512–1520).[35] It is unknown how Selim used the map, if at all, as it vanished from history until its rediscovery centuries later.[36] According to Venetian documents, Piri Reis was no longer with the Ottoman navy in 1518 and was engaging in piracy in the Aegean Sea.[37]
Piri Reis advocated for and took part inSuleiman the Magnificent's 1522Siege of Rhodes.[38][39] The first version of hisKitab-ı Bahriye—a nautical atlas gifted and dedicated to Suleiman—included advice on conquering Rhodes.[38][40] The island of Rhodes had a secure harbor and was 20 km (12 mi) off the coast of Anatolia. Controlled by an adversary, it could threaten maritime communication between the empire's capital and Mediterranean ports.[41] TheKnights of St. John controlled the island, took Muslim captives, and provided shelter to Christian pirates.[42] During the siege, the Knights' fleet of ten ships remained in the harbor rather than confront the larger Ottoman force.[43] The Ottoman Navy conducted an amphibious operation, transporting many troops to the small island,[43] and the island surrendered in December 1522. The Knights of St. John later relocated toMalta.[44][45] The second version of theKitab-ı Bahriye, completed after the conquest of Rhodes, only discusses the events in terms of the practical concerns of acquiring drinking water from Karabağ inBodrum prior to the siege.[46]
The longer second version of theKitab-ı Bahriye resulted from a conversation with the empire'sgrand vizier.[47] Suleiman's reign was the beginning of a shift towards power concentrating in a group ofviziers, advisers, governors, and royal family members, including Suleiman's childhood friendPargalı Ibrahim Pasha who rose to grand vizier of the empire.[48] When putting downHain Ahmed Pasha's 1524 rebellion in Egypt, Ibrahim rode aboard the navy's flagship, commanded by Piri Reis.[49][14] Piri Reis said they discussed cartography after Ibrahim asked him about the maps and charts being consulted aboard the ship.[50] Ibrahim commissioned Piri Reis to create an expanded version of theKitab-ı Bahriye.[51] He finished it and gifted it to the sultan by 1526. In later centuries, many copies were made of both versions of the book.[52] Piri Reis completed a second world map in 1528 or 1529.[53] According toSevim Tekeli, the changes from the first world map demonstrate that Piri Reis was actively following European voyages of discovery.[54]
In both the 1513 world map and theKitab-ı Bahriye preface, Piri Reis rhetorically undermines the significance of European discoveries by reframing them as the rediscovery of ancient knowledge.[55] He invokesAlexander the Great when explaining the discoveries of Columbus.[56] According to theQuran and Turkish literary tradition,Dhu al-Qarnayn—believed to be aQuranic reference to Alexander the Great—traveled to every corner of the world, thereby defining its limits.[57] Marginal inscriptions on the world map mention "charts drawn in the days of Alexander" and a book that "fell into the hands" of Columbus describing lands "at the end of the Western Sea".[58][59] In the 1526 version of theKitab-ı Bahriye, he explicitly credits European discoveries to lost works created during legendary voyages of Alexander, "My friend, theFranks both read and write everything there is to know about the science of the sea. But do not suppose that they invented such knowledge on their own; and if you wish, I will explain why. During his time, the famous ruler Alexander traveled over all the seas, and whatever he saw and whatever he heard he had recorded, item by item, by a competent person."[60]
Venice saw Piri Reis as an adversary and obstacle to their aims in theMiddle East during the 1530s.[61] In 1532, he fought backDalmatian pirates in the Adriatic.[62] He attacked the Venetian-held castle atCoron in 1533, captured a Venetian galley in 1536, and chased Venetian ships out of the eastern Mediterranean.[61]
AfterSinan Reis died in 1546,[61] Piri Reis took his position asHindKapudan-ı Derya, or grand admiral of theOttoman Fleet in the Indian Ocean, as well as admiral of the fleet in Egypt.[63] Portuguese ships had raided the Red Sea as far as Suez and taken the port city ofAden in Yemen.[63] The Portuguese navy employedsailing ships capable of navigation and combat in open seas, while the Ottoman navy relied mainly ongalleys, which were more effective along the coasts. This limited Ottoman naval warfare to the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and narrow straits around Arabia. The empire focused on using its navy to continue land-based expansion into new areas for tax revenue and agriculture.[64]
Using his fleet based out ofSuez, Egypt, Piri Reis led campaigns in the Red Sea and Persian Gulf.[10] On 26 February 1548, herecaptured Aden from thePortuguese.[63] Piri Reis subdued the localBedouin rulers ofBasra in 1547 and began building a Persian Gulf fleet.[65] The fleet conducted annual expansions in the Indian Ocean, and some local rulers began to ally with the Portuguese.[65]
The sultan instructed Piri Reis to take the Portuguese-controlledHormuz Island at the mouth of thePersian Gulf.[66] TakingBahrain Island was a secondary objective.[67] In April 1552,[68] Piri Reis left Suez with 25 galleys, 5 ships, and 850 soldiers.[69] In 1552, the Turkish fleettook Muscat after a one-month siege.[63][70] The expedition took control of coastal lands in Yemen, Oman, and Arabia.[71] The Portuguese prepared for the attack on Hormuz by evacuating most of the island. Wealthy residents took refuge on the nearby island ofQeshm, and the soldiers and royal family retreated to the fortress.[70]
The Turkish soldiers took theCity of Hormuz, but could not take the fortress.[72] Theybesieged and bombarded the fortress for several weeks, but Piri Reis grew concerned about the Portuguese fleet attacking them during the siege.[73] The Ottoman forces ran low on gunpowder, and Kubad Pasha the governor of Basra did not send supplies to the siege.[74] On 9 October 1552, the Ottomans retreated.[75][70] They sacked the city, looted Qeshm, and retreated into the gulf with over a million pieces of gold.[70] The fleet arrived at Basra by 1553.[76] A letter from the Portuguese governor inside the fortress, dated 31 October 1552, said that the walls had been near collapsing, but that the Ottomans had run low on "munitions, gunpowder, and other war materials" much of which they had lost when a galleon sank on the way to Hormuz.[77] ThePortuguese governor of India,Afonso de Noronha [es] organized a fleet of 40 ships led by his nephew Antão de Noronha that reached Hormuz in November 1552.[78]
Piri Reis was executed following his retreat at Hormuz.[10] After the expedition's failure, Kubad Pasha denied Piri Reis rowers for his galleys.[66][70] Historian Svat Soucek suggested that "hostility [between the two men] may have been at the root" of Piri Reis' decision to return to Egypt quickly and the "accusatory report the Pasha probably sent to Constantinople."[79] Leaving most of the fleet behind, Piri Reis returned in 1553 with only two ships.[80][70] The gold he brought back to Egypt played a role in his death sentence. Ottoman histories criticize Piri Reis for looting Qeshm. Some even allege that he accepted bribery.[81] Those allegations were unlikely, as a delegation from Hormuz traveled to Constantinople to demand compensation, but they may have been believed at the time of his execution.[82] Venetian diplomats in Constantinople sent a letter dated 15 November 1553 stating that Piri Reis had been replaced byRüstem Pasha's captain, "charged with having raised the siege of the fortress of Hormuz because of bribery", and executed.[80] For sacking the city instead of maintaining the siege, the sultan had him beheaded inCairo.[80] The exact date of his execution is unknown.[80]
Rüstem Pasha's captainSeydi Ali Reis attempted to return the fleet that Piri Reis had brought to Basra back to Suez, butthe Portuguese intercepted them. The Ottoman ships were all captured, destroyed, or swept out to sea.[83] Piri Reis was possibly survived by a son, Mehmed Reis, who is known only from a single portolan map of the Aegean.[84]
Three of his cartographic works survive in some form to the present day.[85] Fragments of his1513 world map and his 1528 world map are kept in museums in Istanbul.[86][87] Copies of theKitab-ı Bahriye, a navigational atlas, are kept in many libraries and museums around the world, although the two created by Piri Reis himself are lost.[88]
ThePiri Reis map of 1513 is aworld map compiled from a range of contemporary andclassical sources.[89] Approximately one third of the map survives,[90] housed in theTopkapı Palace inIstanbul.[91] The finished manuscript was dated to theIslamic year 919 AH, equivalent to 1513 AD.[92] After the empire's1517 conquest ofEgypt,[33] Piri Reis presented the 1513 world map to Ottoman SultanSelim I (r. 1512–1520).[93] It is unknown how Selim used the map, if at all, as it vanished from history until its rediscovery centuries later.[36] When rediscovered in 1929,[94] the remaining fragment garnered international attention for including a partial copy of an otherwise lost map byChristopher Columbus.[95]
The map is aportolan chart withcompass roses from which lines of bearing radiate.[96] Designed for navigation viadead reckoning,[97] portolan charts use awindrose network rather than alongitude and latitude grid.[96] It contains extensive notes primarily inOttoman Turkish.[98] Thecolophon in Arabic is written in a different handwriting,[99] likely that of Piri Reis himself.[29] The depiction of South America is detailed and accurate for its time.[100][101] The northwestern coast combines features of Central America and Cuba into a single body of land. Scholars attribute the peculiar arrangement of theCaribbean to a now-lost map from Columbus that merged Cuba into the Asian mainland andHispaniola withMarco Polo's description of Japan.[102][103] This reflects Columbus's erroneous claim that he had found a new route to Asia.[104][a] The southern coast of the Atlantic Ocean is most likely a version ofTerra Australis.[110][111]
The map is visually distinct from Europeanportolan charts, influenced by theIslamic miniature tradition.[112] It was unusual in the Islamic cartographic tradition for incorporating many non-Muslim sources.[113] Historian Karen Pinto has described the positive portrayal oflegendary creatures from the edge of the known world in the Americas as breaking away from the medieval Islamic idea of an impassable "Encircling Ocean" surrounding theOld World.[114] Piri Reis adapted the elements of iconography from thetraditional maps—which illustrated well-known routes, cities, and peoples—to the portolan portrayals of newly discovered coasts.[115]
There are conflicting interpretations of the map.[116] Scholarly debate exists over the specific sources used in the map's creation and the number of source maps.[117] Many areas on the map have not been conclusively identified with real ormythical places.[118] Some authors have noted visual similarities to parts of the Americas not officially discovered by 1513,[119] but there is no textual or historical evidence that the map represents land south of present-dayCananéia.[120] A disproven 20th-century hypothesis identified the southern landmass with an ice-free Antarctic coast.[121]
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TheKitab-ı Bahriye (Ottoman Turkish:كتاب بحرية), orBook of the Sea, is a navigational atlas.[b][51] Piri Reis compiled navigational charts and notes into the most detailed portolan atlas of the sixteenth century.[52][123] TheKitab-ı Bahriye combines information from a range of sources and Piri Reis' personal experience. The coast ofNorth Africa relies little on outside sources.[124]
There are two versions of the book.[51] The first version was composed between 1511 and 1521.[c] The second, expanded version was produced as a commission for OttomanGrand VizierPargalı İbrahim Pasha, and completed in 1526.[51]
Both versions begin with a preface and were dedicated to the sultanSuleiman the Magnificent (r. 1520–1566).[88] The main part of both versions is a nautical guide to theMediterranean Sea. Separate chapters cover different locations with corresponding portolan charts.[88] Piri Reis says he composed an atlas because any single map has limited space for written details, and some "knowledge cannot be known from maps; it must be explained."[88] There are 130 chapters in the first version and 210 in the second.[88] The chapters start at theDardanelles and move counter-clockwise around the Mediterranean.[128] The maps havecompass roses indicating North for each page.[129][123] Scale is indicated only in the textual descriptions, not with scale bars.[123] Standard portolan symbols indicate hazards, like dots for shallow water and crosses for rocks.[129] Written when Ottoman sailors relied on oar-drivengalleys andgaliots, theKitab-ı Bahriye reflects their needs and capabilities. It gives information on coastal waters, safe harbors, hazards, and sources of fresh water.[130]
The second version begins with a longer introduction written in verse.[51] This introduction offers information on storms, winds, navigating with a compass, navigating by the stars, readingportolan charts, and theoceans.[88] It includes information on recent Portuguese and Spanish voyages including thevoyages of Christopher Columbus to the Americas andVasco da Gama'sdiscovery of a sea route to India.[51] It offers the first detailed Ottoman description of theIndian Ocean,[131] and gives special attention toHormuz Island at thestrait leading into the Persian Gulf.[99]
The book achieved fame only after Piri Reis' death.[132] The known surviving manuscripts are all copies created beginning in the later 1500s.[122] At least some portion of the book has been translated into English, modern Turkish, Greek, French, German, and Italian.[133]
Piri Reis compiled a second world map in 1528.[134] Only a fragment of the map—the northwest corner—remains.[134] The parchment fragment is approximately 70 centimeters (28 in) square.[134] As with the 1513 map, the 1528 map has calligraphic inscriptions in Ottoman-Turkish written in the Arabic alphabet. Thecolophon is in Arabic, likely handwritten by Piri Reis himself.[135] According to the colophon, Piri Reis compiled the map in 1528 in Gelibolu.[135] However, he may not have completed it until 1529.[134]
The 1528 map was aportolan chart like his earlier works. It uses a windrose network radiating out fromcompass roses.[136] The map does include one line of latitude, theTropic of Cancer; it is slightly south of the correct position for Cuba and the Yucatan.[137] The map uses standard portolan colors and symbols. Dots indicate shallow waters andsand banks. Crosses indicate rocks andreefs.[136] The ships painted on the map are twocaravels and acarrack.[135] Thescale bars indicate 80 km (50 mi) between the sections of the scales.[138]
Based on the design of recently explored geographical features like Greenland, Newfoundland, and Florida, the map likely relied on Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian maps from the 1520s.[134] Notes on the map cite recent Portuguese voyages toLabrador andNewfoundland.[139] Hispaniola and Cuba are much more accurate compared to the 1513 world map. Cuba, labeled "Isla diVana", is now correctly positioned as an island in the Caribbean.[140][141] In contrast to the 1513 map, Piri Reis leaves areas that have not been explored blank.[142] Only the explored southern coasts of the Florida peninsula are on the map. Thegeography of Florida is left ambiguous as potentially an island orpeninsula.[143] TheSpanish Empire's master map, thePadrón Real, included this type of ambiguous Florida until 1520, and it influenced Italian cartography like theFreducci map.[144]
During his own life, there was limited appreciation for Piri Reis' cartography. Historian Svat Soucek said of the cartographic works of Piri Reis, "They show that although the Ottoman Empire had the potential to participate in the discoveries, its ruling elite spurned the attempt to blaze a trail in this direction".[145] The 1513 world map disappeared from the historical record until its rediscovery centuries later.[36] There is no evidence that either version of his atlas circulated outside the royal palace prior to 1550.[132] The copies produced in the following centuries were often created for their aesthetic or artistic value.[53] No Turkish school of cartography or navigation was established to build on his work.[146]Murat Reis the Elder's expedition to theCanary Islands and the 1586Sack of Lanzarote were some of the few times when Piri Reis' Atlantic cartography was likely used by the Ottoman Navy.[147] The empire's navy—even during the Canary Islands expedition—remained largely composed of oar-driven galleys after the point where other naval powers were moving tosailing ships that were more suited to the open oceans.[147] Ottoman scholarKâtip Çelebi built on theKitab-i Bahriye in his seventeenth-century work,Müntehab-ı Bahriyye.[148] By the eighteenth century, major works of cartography from Western Europe were being translated into Turkish.[149]
When Piri Reis' world map was unearthed in 1929, it received international media attention for containing the surviving piece of an otherwise lost map of Christopher Columbus.[95] Turkey's first president,Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, took an interest in the map and initiatedprojects to publish facsimiles and conduct research.[150] Discovered duringAtatürk's reforms, the map was a point of national pride. Its rediscovery also sparked interest in theKitab-ı Bahriye.[151][146] A facsimile of the book's second version was published by theTurkish Historical Society in 1935,[152] and a four-volume facsimile with photographic quality was published in 1988.[153] Several ships and submarines have been named after him, including theRV K.Piri Reis andTCGPirireis.[154][155][156] ThePiri Reis University for maritime studies was founded in 2008.[157] In the Turkish TV seriesBarbaros: Sword of the Mediterranean, he is portrayed by actor Emir Benderlioğlu.[158]
Piri Reis' 1513 world map is the target of various pseudoscientific claims and is sometimes invoked in broader pop culture as an unsolved mystery. Civil engineerArlington Mallery, professorCharles Hapgood, and Hapgood's students developed the hypothesis that the 1513 world map contained cartographic information, notably from an ice-free Antarctic coast, that exceeded the map-making abilities of the sixteenth century. In his 1966 bookMaps of the Ancient Sea Kings, Hapgood claims islands along the map's southern Atlantic shore to be ice-covered mountains in Antarctica'sQueen Maud Land region.[159] Hapgood's book was met with skepticism due to its lack of evidence and reliance onpolar shift.[160] According to geologist Paul Heinrich, the book also did not account forpost-glacial rebound, and the 1949 survey initially cited by Mallery could not measure even one percent of the area drawn in the Piri Reis map. Subsequent studies have shown no significant similarities to Antarctica's coast.[161] Hapgood's claims have been uncritically repeated byErich von Däniken in support ofancient astronauts and byGraham Hancock in support of an advanced lost civilization.[162][163] The map and polar shift were key plot elements inAllan W. Eckert's science fiction novelThe HAB Theory.[164] Piri Reis is a character in theAssassin's Creed franchise. In the 2010 video gameAssassin's Creed: Brotherhood, a group of ItalianAssassins sent from Rome to Constantinople byEzio Auditore da Firenze infiltrates Piri Reis' shop to steal some of his maps detailing the New World, to match theTemplars' expansion into the new lands.[165] He appears in its 2011 sequelAssassin's Creed: Revelations, set in early sixteenth-century Constantinople.[166][167]
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