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In antiquity, the termphilhellene ("the admirer of Greeks and everything Greek"), from the (Greek:φιλέλλην, fromφίλος -philos, "friend", "lover" +Ἕλλην -Hellen, "Greek")[1] was used to describe both non-Greeks who were fond of ancient Greek culture and Greeks who patriotically upheld their culture. TheLiddell-Scott Greek-English Lexicon defines 'philhellene' as "fond of the Hellenes, mostly of foreign princes, asAmasis; ofParthian kings[...]; also of Hellenic tyrants, asJason of Pherae and generally ofHellenic (Greek) patriots.[1] According toXenophon, an honorable Greek should also be a philhellene.[2]
The early rulers of theParthian Empire, starting withMithridates I (r. 171–132 BC), used the title of philhellenes on their coins, which was a political act done in order to establish friendly relations with their Greek subjects.[5]
Following the example of the Parthians,Tigranes adopted the title of Philhellene (friend of the Greeks). The layout of his capitalTigranocerta was an example ofGreek architecture.
Among Romans the career ofTitus Quinctius Flamininus (died 174 BC), who appeared at theIsthmian Games inCorinth in 196 BC and proclaimed the freedom of the Greek states, was fluent in Greek, stood out, according toLivy, as a great admirer ofGreek culture. The Greeks hailed him as their liberator.[9] There were some Romans during the late Republic, who were distinctly anti-Greek, resenting the increasing influence of Greek culture on Roman life, an example being the Roman Censor,Cato the Elder andCato the Younger, who lived during the "Greek invasion" of Rome but towards the later years of his life he eventually became a philhellene after his stay in Rhodes.[10]
The lyric poetQuintus Horatius Flaccus, often anglicized as Horace, was another philhellene. He is notable for his words, "Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit et artis intulit agresti Latio" (Conquered Greece took captive her savage conqueror and brought her arts into rustic Latium), meaning that after the conquest of Greece the defeated Greeks created a cultural hegemony over the Romans.[citation needed]
Horace's contemporary lyric poets,Virgil andOvid, both produced magnum opuses (theAeneid and theMetamorphoses, respectively) which were substantially founded upon Hellenic references and culture. Additionally, Virgil'sEclogues were inspired byTheocritus' earlierpastoral poetry in hisidylls. The Aeneid, Virgil's story of Rome's founding myth, notably shares several similarities withHomer's earlier epics, particularly theOdyssey, one of which being both his epic and the Odyssey follow ademigod protagonist's military voyage after theTrojan War. It also was influenced by Homer'sIliad; for example, theekphrasis ofAchilles' divine shield from his mother,Thetis, was mirrored by the ekphrasis ofAeneas' divine shield from his mother,Venus.[11]Ovid's work was perhaps even more influenced by ancient Greek culture than Virgil; his Metamorphoses were inspired by theGreek epictradition and metamorphosis poetry in theHellenistic tradition, and its content was derived to a large extent fromGreek myth and folklore, including the Trojan War. Ovid's treatment of Greek myths was so impactful for later Philhellenism, especially during theRenaissance, that the well-known versions of some myths are actually Ovid's versions (e.g.Echo and Narcissus). Soon after these writers, other Roman lyric poets such asLucan (inspired by Greek epics with hisPharsalia) orPersius (heavily inspired by Horace with hisLife) continued to exhibit strong interests and admirations for Greek literary, artistic, and religious culture.
In the period of political reaction and repression after the fall ofNapoleon, when the liberal-minded, educated and prosperous middle and upper classes of European societies found theRomantic nationalism of 1789–1792 repressed by the restoration ofabsolute monarchy at home, the idea of the re-creation of a Greek state on the very territories that were sanctified by their view of Antiquity—which was reflected even in thefurnishings of their own parlors and the contents of their bookcases—offered an ideal, set at a romantic distance. Under these conditions, theGreek uprising constituted a source of inspiration and expectations that could never actually be fulfilled, disappointing whatPaul Cartledge called "the Victorian self-identification with the Glory that was Greece".[12] American higher education was fundamentally transformed by the rising admiration of and identification with ancient Greece in the 1830s and afterward.[13]
Another popular subject of interest inGreek culture at the turn of the 19th century was the shadowyScythian philosopherAnacharsis, who lived in the 6th century BC. The new prominence of Anacharsis was sparked byJean-Jacques Barthélemy's fancifulTravels of Anacharsis the Younger in Greece (1788), a learned imaginarytravel journal, one of the firsthistorical novels, which a modern scholar has called "the encyclopedia of the new cult of the antique" in the late 18th century. It had a high impact on the growth of philhellenism in France: the book went through many editions, was reprinted in the United States and was translated into German and other languages. It later inspired European sympathy for the Greek War of Independence and spawned sequels and imitations throughout the 19th century.
Friedrich Nietzsche, was one of the most staunch philhellenes.[14] He wrote that: "the Greek is the man who has achieved the most", "the Greek people are the only people of genius in the history of the world", "the Greeks have never been overestimated", "the Greek antiquity is the only true home of culture" and that "the Greek world is seen as the one truly profound possibility of life". Nietzsche was convinced that "the knowledge of the great Greeks" educated him.[15]
InGerman culture the first phase of philhellenism can be traced in the careers and writings ofJohann Joachim Winckelmann, one of the inventors of art history,Friedrich August Wolf, who inaugurated modernHomeric scholarship with hisProlegomena ad Homerum (1795) and the enlightened bureaucratWilhelm von Humboldt. It was also in this context thatJohann Wolfgang von Goethe andFriedrich Hölderlin were to compose poetry and prose in the field of literature, elevating Hellenic themes in their works. One of the most renowned German philhellenes of the 19th century wasFriedrich Nietzsche.[14] In theGerman states, the private obsession with ancient Greece took public forms, institutionalizing an elite philhelleneethos through theGymnasium, to revitalizeGerman education at home, and providing on two occasions high-minded philhellene German princes ignorant of modern-day Greek realities, to be Greek sovereigns.[16]
During the later 19th century the new studies of archaeology and anthropology began to offer a quite separate view of ancient Greece, which had previously been experienced second-hand only throughGreek literature,Greek sculpture andarchitecture.[17] Twentieth-century heirs of the 19th-century view of an unchanging, immortal quality of "Greekness" are typified in J. C. Lawson'sModern Greek Folklore and Ancient Greek Religion (1910) or R. and E. Blum'sThe Dangerous Hour: The lore of crisis and mystery in rural Greece (1970).[18]
Nikos Dimou'sThe Misfortune to be Greek[20] argues that the Philhellenes' expectation for the modernGreek people to live up to their ancestors' allegedly glorious past has always been a burden upon the Greeks themselves.[21] In particular, Western Philhellenism focused exclusively on the heritage of Classical Greece, while negating or rejecting the heritage of theByzantine Empire and theGreek Orthodox Church, which for the Greek people are at least as important.
Philhellenism also created a renewed interest in the artistic movement ofNeoclassicism, which idealized fifth-century Classical Greek art and architecture,[22] very much at second hand, through the writings of the first generation of art historians, likeJohann Joachim Winckelmann andGotthold Ephraim Lessing.
The groundswell of the Philhellenic movement was result of two generations of intrepid artists and amateur treasure-seekers, from Stuart and Revett, who published their measured drawings asThe Antiquities of Athens and culminating with the removal of sculptures fromAegina and theParthenon (theElgin Marbles), works that inspired the British Philhellenes, many of whom, however, deplored their removal.
Some, notablyLord Byron, even took up arms to join the Greek revolutionaries. Many more financed the revolution or contributed through their artistic work.
Throughout the 19th century, philhellenes continued to support Greece politically and militarily. For example,Ricciotti Garibaldi led a volunteer expedition (Garibaldini) in theGreco-Turkish War of 1897.[24] A group of Garibaldini, headed by the Greek poetLorentzos Mavilis, fought also with the Greek side during theBalkan Wars.
^abLiddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert."φιλ-έλλην".A Greek-English Lexicon. Tufts University.Archived from the original on 2021-09-17. Retrieved2021-09-17 – via Perseus Digital Library.
^Winterer, Caroline (2002).The Culture of Classicism: Ancient Greece and Rome in American Intellectual Life, 1780-1910. Johns Hopkins University Press.
^The history of pedagogically conservative philhellenism in German high academic culture has been examined inSuzanne L. Marchand,Down from Olympus: Archaeology and Philhellenism in Germany, 1750–1970 (Princeton University Press, 1996); she begins with Winckelmann, Wolf and von Humboldt.
^S. L. Marchand, 1992.Archaeology and Cultural Politics in Germany, 1800–1965: The Decline of Philhellenism (University of Chicago).
^Cartledge, Paul. "The Greeks and Anthropology." Anthropology Today, vol. 10, no. 3, 1994, pp. 3–6. JSTOR,https://doi.org/10.2307/2783476. Accessed 9 June 2023.
^Cartledge, Paul. "The Greeks and Anthropology." Anthropology Today, vol. 10, no. 3, 1994, pp. 3–6. JSTOR,https://doi.org/10.2307/2783476. Accessed 9 June 2023.
^Cartledge, Paul. "The Greeks and Anthropology." Anthropology Today, vol. 10, no. 3, 1994, pp. 3–6. JSTOR,https://doi.org/10.2307/2783476. Accessed 9 June 2023.
^It often selected for its favoured models third- and second-century sculptures that were actuallyHellenistic in origin, and appreciated through the lens of Roman copies: see Francis Haskell and Nicholas Penny,Taste and the Antique: The Lure of Antique Sculpture 1500–1900 (1981).
^abcGilles Pécout, "Philhellenism in Italy: political friendship and the Italian volunteers in the Mediterranean in the nineteenth century",Journal of Modern Italian Studies9:4:405–427 (2004)doi:10.1080/1354571042000296380
Thomas Cahill,Sailing the Wine-Dark Sea: Why the Greeks Matter (Nan A. Talese, 2003)
Stella Ghervas, « Le philhellénisme d'inspiration conservatrice en Europe et en Russie », inPeuples, Etats et nations dans le Sud-Est de l'Europe, (Bucarest, Ed. Anima, 2004.)
Stella Ghervas, « Le philhellénisme russe : union d'amour ou d'intérêt? », inRegards sur le philhellénisme, (Genève, Mission permanente de la Grèce auprès de l'ONU, 2008).
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