Pewter (/ˈpjuːtər/) is amalleablemetalalloy consisting oftin (85–99%),antimony (approximately 5–10%),copper (2%),[1]bismuth,[2] and sometimessilver.[3] In the past, it was an alloy of tin andlead, but most modern pewter, in order to preventlead poisoning, is not made with lead. Pewter has a lowmelting point, around 170–230 °C (338–446 °F), depending on the exact mixture of metals.[4][5] The wordpewter is possibly a variation of "spelter", a term forzinc alloys (originally a colloquial name for zinc).[6]
Pewter was first used around the beginning of theBronze Age in theNear East. The earliest known piece of pewter was found in anEgyptian tomb,c. 1450 BC,[7] but it is unlikely that this was the first use of the material. Pewter was used for decorative metal items and tableware in ancient times by the Egyptians and later the Romans, and came into extensive use in Europe from theMiddle Ages[2] until the various developments in pottery and glass-making during the 18th and 19th centuries. Pewter was a leading material for producing plates, cups, and bowls before the wide adoption ofporcelain. Mass production of pottery, porcelain and glass products have almost universally replaced pewter in daily life, although pewter artifacts continue to be produced, mainly as decorative or specialty items. Pewter was also used aroundEast Asia. Although some items still exist,[8]ancient Roman pewter is rare.[9]
Lidless mugs and liddedtankards may be the most familiar pewter artifacts from the late 17th and 18th centuries, although the metal was also used for many other items includingporringers (shallow bowls), plates, dishes, basins, spoons, measures, flagons, communion cups, teapots, sugar bowls,beer steins (tankards), and cream jugs. In the early 19th century, changes infashion caused a decline in the use of pewter flatware. At the same time, production increased of both cast and spun pewter tea sets, whale-oil lamps, candlesticks, and so on. Later in the century, pewter alloys were often used as a base metal forsilver-plated objects.
In the late 19th century, pewter came back into fashion with the revival of medieval objects for decoration. New replicas of medieval pewter objects were created, and collected for decoration. Today, pewter is used in decorative objects, mainly collectible statuettes and figurines, game figures, aircraft and other models, (replica) coins, pendants, plated jewellery and so on. Certain athletic contests, such as theUnited States Figure Skating Championships, award pewter medals to fourth-place finishers.[10]
In antiquity, pewter wastin alloyed with lead and sometimes alsocopper. Older pewters with higher lead content are heavier, tarnish faster, and theiroxidation has a darker, silver-gray color.[11] Pewters containing lead are no longer used in items that will come in contact with the human body (such as cups, plates, or jewelry), due tothe toxicity of lead. Modern pewters are available that are completely free of lead, although many pewters containing lead are still being produced for other purposes.[12]
A typical European casting alloy contains 94% tin, 1% copper and 5%antimony. A European pewter sheet would contain 92% tin, 2% copper, and 6% antimony. Asian pewter, produced mostly inMalaysia,Singapore, andThailand, contains a higher percentage of tin, usually 97.5% tin, 1% copper, and 1.5% antimony. This makes the alloy slightly softer.[7]
The termMexican pewter is used for any of various alloys of aluminium that are used for decorative items.[13][14][15]
Pewter is also used to imitate platinum in costume jewelry.
Pewter, being a softer material, can be manipulated in various ways such as beingcast, hammered,turned,spun andengraved.
Given that pewter is soft at room temperature, a pewterbell does not ring clearly. Cooling it inliquid nitrogen hardens it and enables it to ring, but also makes it more brittle.[16]
