| Peak District | |
|---|---|
 A view ofMam Tor | |
| Highest point | |
| Peak | Kinder Scout |
| Elevation | 636 m (2,087 ft) |
| Coordinates | 53°23′0″N1°52′2″W / 53.38333°N 1.86722°W /53.38333; -1.86722 |
| Geography | |
 | |
| Location | Cheshire,Derbyshire,Greater Manchester,South Yorkshire,Staffordshire,West Yorkshire |
| Country | England |
| Areas | Dark Peak,White Peak |
| Largest settlements | Glossop,Bakewell,Buxton |
| Geology | |
| Rock age | PrimarilyCarboniferous |
| Rock type | Primarilysedimentary |
| Peak District National Park | |
IUCN category V (protected landscape/seascape) | |
 Peak District National Park (shaded green) within England | |
| Area | 555 sq mi (1,440 km2) |
| Designated | 17 April 1951 (1951-04-17) |
| Visitors | Over 13 million[1] |
| Administrator | Peak DistrictNational Park Authority |
| Website | www |
ThePeak District is anupland area in central-northern England, at the southern end of thePennines. Mostly inDerbyshire, it extends intoCheshire,Greater Manchester,Staffordshire,West Yorkshire andSouth Yorkshire. It is subdivided into theDark Peak,moorland dominated bygritstone, and theWhite Peak, alimestone area with valleys and gorges. The Dark Peak forms an arc on the north, east and west of the district, and the White Peak covers central and southern areas. The highest point isKinder Scout (2,087 ft (636 m)). Most of the area is within thePeak District National Park, a protected landscape designated in 1951.[2]
A 2021 report states that "the Park’s own population numbers around 40,000 and supports an estimated 18,000 jobs, predominantly through farming, manufacturing and, inevitably, tourism".[3]
The area has been inhabited since theMesolithic era; it was largely used for agricultural purposes until mining arose in the Middle Ages. During theIndustrial Revolution, severalcotton mills were constructed in the area's valleys byRichard Arkwright. As mining declined, quarrying grew. Tourism came with the railways, spurred by the landscape,spa towns andCastleton's show caves.
The upland area of the Peak District, centred around Derbyshire, has historically been known as Peakland and The Peak. TheAnglo-Saxon Chronicle of 924 AD recorded the region’s name as Peaclond (meaning hill country inOld English), home of thePecsaetan tribe. From theRenaissance, prominent authors (such asThomas Hobbes,Daniel Defoe,Samuel Pepys andCharles Cotton) referred to the area as just The Peak.[4][5]
The Peak District forms the southern extremity of the Pennines.[6] Much of it is upland above 1,000 feet (300 m), its highest point beingKinder Scout at 2,087 ft (636 m).[7] Despite its name, the landscape has fewer sharp peaks than rounded hills,plateaus, valleys, limestonegorges and gritstoneescarpments (the "edges").[8][9] The mostly rural area is surrounded by conurbations and large urban areas, includingManchester,Huddersfield,Sheffield,Derby andStoke-on-Trent.
Thenational park has formal boundaries. It covers most of theDark Peak andWhite Peak, but the wider Peak District is less well defined.[10] The Dark Peak is largely uninhabitedmoorland and gritstone escarpments in the northern Peak District and its eastern and western margins. It encloses the central and southern White Peak, which is where most settlements, farmland and limestone gorges are found.[11][12] Three ofNatural England'sNational Character Areas (NCAs) cover parts of it. The Dark Peak NCA includes the northern and eastern parts of the Dark Peak and the White Peak NCA most of the White Peak. The western margins of the Dark Peak are in the South West Peak NCA, where farmland and pastured valleys are found with gritstone edges and moorland.[12][13]
Outside the park, the wider Peak District extends from the gritstone moorlands of theSouth Pennines to the north, separated approximately by theTame Valley,Standedge andHolme Valley.[14] It continues south and roughly ends at theWeaver Hills near theChurnet Valley.[15][16] It often includes the area approximately betweenDisley and Sterndale Moor, encompassingBuxton and thePeak Dale corridor. It may also include some of the outer fringes and foothills, such as the Churnet[17] andlower Derwent Valleys,[18] and the area approximately betweenThe Cloud andMow Cop.[19] Conversely, while the rural west of theCity of Sheffield falls in the park boundaries, the urban area of the city is usually excluded,[20] alongside the other surrounding large urban areas. The rest of the region is surrounded by lowlands,[21] including theCheshire Plain[22] andGreater Manchester Built-up Area[23] to the west. TheDerbyshire and Yorkshire Coalfields lie to the east[24] while the lowlands of theMidlands are to the south, near the north of theTrent Valley.[25]
The national park covers 555 square miles (1,440 km2),[26] including most of the region in Derbyshire and extends into Staffordshire, Cheshire, Greater Manchester and South and West Yorkshire. Its northern limit is on a track near Deer Hill inMeltham; its southernmost point is on theA52 road nearAshbourne. The boundaries were drawn to exclude built-up and industrial areas; in particular Buxton and the quarries at the end of the Peak Dale corridor are surrounded on three sides by the park.Bakewell and many villages are in the national park, as is much of the rural west of Sheffield. In 2010 it became the fifth largest national park in England and Wales.[27] In the UK, designation as a national park means that planning and other functions are provided by a national park authority, with additional restrictions that enhance protection from inappropriate development. Land within this national park as in others is in a mix of public and private ownership.
TheNational Trust, a charity that conserves historic and natural landscapes, owns about 12 per cent of the land in the national park.[28] Its three estates (High Peak,White Peak andLongshaw) include ecologically or geologically significant areas atBleaklow,Derwent Edge,Hope Woodlands,Kinder Scout, theManifold valley,Mam Tor,Dovedale,Milldale andWinnats Pass.[29][30][31] The park authority owns around 5 per cent; other major landowners include several water companies.[32]
Bakewell is the largest settlement and only town in the national park and the site of the National Park Authority offices. Itsfive-arched bridge over the River Wye dates from the 13th century.[33] Castleton is the centre of production of a semi-precious mineral,Blue John.Eyam village is known for a self-imposed quarantine during theBlack Death.[34]Edale is the southern end of thePennine Way, a 268-milenational trail which traverses most of the Pennines and ends atKirk Yetholm in theScottish border.[35] The park also contains the highest village in the United Kingdom,Flash, at 1,519 feet (463 m).[36] Other villages in the park includeHathersage,Hartington,Ilam andTideswell.
The towns ofGlossop,Chapel-en-le-Frith,Buxton,Macclesfield,Leek, Ashbourne,Matlock andChesterfield are on the national park's fringes. Thespa town of Buxton was built up by theDukes of Devonshire as a genteel health resort in the 18th century[37] while thespa atMatlock Bath, in the River Derwent valley, was popularised in Victorian times.Hayfield is at the foot of Kinder Scout, the area's highest summit. Other towns and villages fringing the park includeWhaley Bridge,Hadfield,Tintwistle,Darley Dale andWirksworth in Derbyshire,Stocksbridge in South Yorkshire andMarsden andHolmfirth in West Yorkshire.
Several rivers have sources on the moorland plateaux of the Dark Peak and the high ridges of the White Peak. Many rivers in the Dark Peak and outer fringes were dammed to create reservoirs for supplying drinking water. Streams were dammed to provide headwater forwater driven mills;weirs were built for the same purpose. The reservoirs of theLongdendale Chain were completed in February 1877 to provide compensation water, ensuring a continuous flow in theRiver Etherow, which was essential for local industry and provided drinking water for Manchester.[38] In a report for theManchester Corporation,John Frederick Bateman wrote in 1846:
Within ten or twelve miles of Manchester, and six or seven miles from the existing reservoirs at Gorton, there is this tract of mountain land abounding with springs of the purest quality. Its physical and geological features offer such peculiar features for the collection, storage and supply of water for the use of the towns in the plains below that I am surprised that they have been overlooked.
— John Frederick Bateman[38]
The western Peak District is drained by the Etherow, theGoyt and theTame, all tributaries of theRiver Mersey. The north-east is drained by tributaries of theRiver Don. Of the tributaries of theRiver Trent draining south and east, theRiver Derwent is the most prominent. It rises on Bleaklow just east ofGlossop and flows through theUpper Derwent Valley, where it is constrained by theHowden,Derwent andLadybower reservoirs.[39] The reservoirs of the Upper Derwent Valley were built from the early to mid-20th century to supply drinking water to theEast Midlands and South Yorkshire.
Therivers Noe and theWye are tributaries.[40] TheRiver Manifold[41] andRiver Dove[42] in the south-west, whose sources are onAxe Edge Moor, flow into the Trent. TheRiver Dane[43] flows into theRiver Weaver in Cheshire.
There are no canals in the national park, although theStandedge Tunnels on theHuddersfield Narrow Canal run underneath the extreme north of it. Outside the park, waters from the Dark Peak feed theMacclesfield,Ashton, and Huddersfield Narrow Canals and waters from the White Peak fed theCromford Canal. ThePeak Forest Canal broughtlime from the quarries atDove Holes for the construction industry. It terminated atBugsworth Basin and the journey was completed using thePeak Forest Tramway.
The Cromford Canal, fromCromford to theErewash Canal, served lead mines atWirksworth andSir Richard Arkwright's cotton mills. TheCaldon Canal fromFroghall was built to transport limestone from quarries at Cauldon Low for the iron industry and flints for the pottery industry.[44]
Most of the area is over 1,000 feet (300 m) above sea level,[45] in the centre of the country at a latitude of 53°N, bringing relatively high annual rainfall averaging 40.35 inches (1,025 mm) in 1999. The Dark Peak tends to receive more rainfall than the White Peak, as it is higher. The higher rainfall does not affect the temperature, which averages the same as the rest of England and Wales at 10.3 °C (50.5 °F).[46]
In the 1970s, the Dark Peak regularly had more than 70 days of snowfall. Since then the number has fallen. The hills still see long periods of continuous snow cover in some winters. Snow in mid-December 2009 on some hill summits created some snow patches that lasted until May 2010. In the same winter, the A635 (Saddleworth Moor) and A57 (Snake Pass) were closed due to snow for almost a month. Frost cover is seen for 20–30 per cent of the winter on moorland in the Dark Peak and 10 per cent in the White Peak.[47]
The Moorland Indicators of Climate Change Initiative was set up in 2008 to collect data in the area. Students investigated the interaction between people and the moorlands and their effect on climate change, to discover whether the moorlands are a netcarbon sink or source, based on the fact that Britain's upland areas contain a major global carbon store in the form ofpeat. Human interaction in terms of direct erosion and fire, with the effects of global warming, are the main variables they considered.[48]
The Peak District is formed almost wholly ofsedimentary rocks of theCarboniferous period. They make up thecarboniferous limestone overlyinggritstone, and thecoal measures that occur only on the margins and infrequent outcrops ofigneous rocks, includinglavas,tuffs andvolcanic ventagglomerates.[49] The general geological structure is that of a broaddome, whose western margins have been intenselyfaulted andfolded.Uplift anderosion have sliced the top off theDerbyshire Dome to reveal aconcentricoutcrop pattern with coal-measured rocks on the eastern and western margins, carboniferous limestone at the core and rocks ofmillstone grit between them. The southern edge of the Derbyshire dome is overlain bysandstones ofTriassic age, though they barely impinge on the National Park. The White Peak forms a central and southern section with carboniferous limestone found at or near the surface.[50] The Dark Peak to the north, east and west is marked by millstone grit outcrops and broad swathes of moorland.[51][13]
Earth movements after the Carboniferous period resulted in the up-doming of the area and, particularly in the west, the folding of the rock strata along north–south axes. The region was raised in a north–south line which resulted in the dome-like shape[52] and theshales and sandstones were worn away until limestone was exposed. At the end of this period, the Earth's crust sank here which led to the area being covered by sea, depositing a variety of new rocks.[53] Some time after its deposition, mineral veins were formed in the limestone. The veins and rakes have been mined for lead sinceRoman times.[53]
The Peak District was iced over in at least one of theice ages of the last two million years, probably theAnglian glaciation of some 450,000 years ago, as shown by patches of glacial till or boulder clay found across the area. It was not iced over in thelast glacial period, which peaked about 20,000–22,000 years ago. A mix of Irish Sea and Lake District ice abutted its western margins. Glacial meltwaters eroded a complex of sinuous channels along this margin of the district.[54] Glacial meltwaters contributed to the formation and development of many caves in the limestone area.[55] Remains of wild animal herds roaming the area have been found in several caves.[53]
Various rock-types beneath the soil strongly influence the landscape; they determine the type ofvegetation and ultimately the type of animal inhabiting the area.[56]Limestone has fissures and issoluble in water, so that rivers could carve deep, narrow valleys. These often find routes underground, creating cave systems. Millstone grit is insoluble butporous, absorbing water that seeps through the grits, until it meets the less porous shales beneath, creatingsprings where it reaches the surface. The shales are friable and easily attacked by frost, forming areas vulnerable to landslides, as on Mam Tor.[52]
The gritstone and shale of the Dark Peak supportsheather moorland andblanket bog, with rough sheep pasture andgrouse shooting as the main land uses, though parts are also farmed,[51] especially the South West Peak NCA.[57] The limestone plateaus of the White Peak are more intensively farmed, with mainly dairy usage of improved pastures.[50] Woodland forms some 8 per cent of the Peak National Park.[32] Natural broad-leavedwoodland appears in the steep dales of theWhite Peak and cloughs of the Dark Peak. Reservoir margins often have coniferous plantations.
White Peak habitats includecalcareous grassland, ash woodlands and rock outcrops for lime-loving species.[58] They includeearly purple orchid (Orchis mascula),dark-red helleborine (Epipactis atrorubens) andfly orchid (Ophrys insectifera),common rockrose (Helianthemum nummularium),spring cinquefoil (Helianthemum nummularium) andgrass of parnassus (Parnassia palustris). Lead rakes, the spoil heaps of ancient mining activity, form another distinctive White Peak habitat, supporting a range of raremetallophyte plants, includingspring sandwort (Minuartia verna; also known as leadwort),alpine pennycress (Thlaspi caerulescens) andmountain pansy (Viola lutea).[59]
Twoendemic vascular plants are found nowhere else in the world:Derby hawkweed (Hieracium naviense), found only inWinnats Pass,[58] is a native perennial of limestone cliffs discovered by J. N. Mills in 1966 and described as a new species in 1968;[60] and leek-coloured hawkweed (H. subprasinifolium), which was believed extinct until rediscovered on banks beside theMonsal Trail inChee Dale in 2017.[61] The endemicDerbyshire feather moss (Thamnobryum angustifolium) occurs in one Derbyshire limestone dale, its sole world location intentionally kept confidential; the colony covers about 3 square metres (32 sq ft) of a rock face with small subsidiary colonies nearby.[62]
Jacob's-ladder (Polemonium caeruleum), a rarish species characteristic of limestone dales in the White Peak, has been Derbyshire's county flower since 2002.[58] It grows on grassland, light woodland, screes and rock ledges, and by streams inLathkill, Wolfscote, Taddington,Wye Dale and other dales. Pollen evidence from peat bogs shows it was widespread throughout Britain just after the last ice age. Much planted in gardens from where it has established itself in other parts of the area, as a native it is restricted to the White Peak and theYorkshire Dales.[63]
The Dark Peak heathlands, bogs, gritstone edges and acid grasslands contain relatively few species;heather (Calluna vulgaris),crowberry (Empetrum nigrum),bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus) andhare's-tail cotton grass (Eriophorum vaginatum) dominate the high moors.[58] After decades of decline due to pollution,Sphagnum mosses are returning, with species such asS. cuspidatum particularly dominant.
Most Peak District mammals are generalists and widespread across the UK, but themountain hares on heather moorland in the Dark Peak form the only wild population in England. They were reintroduced in the Victorian era for sporting purposes.[64] A feral population ofred-necked wallabies lived aroundThe Roaches from the 1940s onwards, but may now be extinct.[65]Red deer herds, assumed to be derived from animals escaped fromdeer parks atLyme Park andChatsworth, are established in the upper reaches of theGoyt valley and on the moors aboveBaslow,[66][67] and a herd onWharncliffe Crags outside the national park north of Sheffield may derive from hunting stock of Wharncliffe Chase.[68]Biodiversity action plans have been prepared for mountain hare,brown hare,brown long-eared bat,dormouse,harvest mouse,hedgehog,noctule bat,otter,pine marten,polecat,soprano pipistrelle andwater vole.[69] The status of the pine marten is unclear, though confirmed sightings have occurred in recent decades in Derbyshire and north Staffordshire[70] and a specimen from an introduced Welsh population[71] was found dead outside the national park on a road betweenRipley andBelper in 2018.[72]
As with mammals, many Peak bird species are widespread generalists. The Dark Peak moors still support breeding populations of several upland specialists, such astwite,[73][74]short-eared owl,[73][75]golden plover,[73]dunlin,[76]ring ouzel,[73]northern wheatear[77] andmerlin.[73] The populations of twite and golden plover are the southernmost confirmed breeding populations in England,[78] and the Peak District Moors Special Protection Area (SPA) is a European designation for its populations of merlin, golden plover and short-eared owl.[73] The Peak District lacks the concentrations of breedingwaders found further north in the Pennines, though the moors and their fringes accommodate breedingcurlew andlapwing,[77] and less noticeable wading birds such as dunlin andsnipe.[77]
Commercialdriven grouse shooting occurs on the heather moorlands of the Dark Peak, where thered grouse population is maintained by gamekeepers employed by shooting estates.[79][80] A population ofblack grouse became extinct in 2000,[78] but reintroduction was attempted in 2003.[81] Quarries and rock outcrops provide nest sites forperegrine falcon andcommon raven. Ravens andcommon buzzards are increasingly found as their British range expands eastwards, perhaps because of general reductions in persecution. Illegal persecution has limited populations of rare raptors such asEurasian goshawk, peregrine andhen harrier.[80] Following theRSPB's publication ofPeak Malpractice, a 2006 report highlighting wildlife crime,[80] the Peak District Bird of Prey Initiative was set up in 2011 by conservationists and shooting bodies to try to boost populations of birds of prey.[82] The park authorities expressed disappointment at the limited results[83] and the RSPB withdrew from the partnership in January 2018 citing continued efforts by the Moorland Association and National Gamekeepers’ Organisation which together had "frustrated any possibility of progress" on the issue.[84]
Fast-flowing rivers attract specialists such asgrey wagtail,[79]dipper,[85][86]common sandpiper,[79]mandarin duck[87] andgoosander.[88] Wooded and semi-wooded areas attractredstart,[77]pied flycatcher,[77]wood warbler[77] andtree pipit,[79] and coniferous plantations housesiskin andcommon crossbill.[85] Upland reservoirs in the Dark Peak are generallyoligotrophic and attract few birds, but lower-lying reservoirs on the southern fringes such asCarsington Water andOgston Reservoir regularly attract rare migrants and wintering rarities such as various waders, wildfowl, gulls and terns.[87] The area is regularly overflown by wintering populations ofpink-footed geese[87] moving between East Anglia and Morecambe Bay.
Dipper, golden plover, hen harrier, merlin and short-eared owl are localbiodiversity action plan priority species.[69]
Fossil records show that the Peak District was once inhabited by an eclectic mix of species, many of them no longer found in Britain, such asalpine swift,demoiselle crane andlong-legged buzzard. Species lost from the Peak District through human activity includehazel grouse,capercaillie andgolden eagle.[89]
Amphibians and reptiles such ascommon lizards,grass snakes,great crested newts andslow worms are found in the district.[69] The eastern moors are a stronghold foradders.[90]
Native fish in the Peak District includeAtlantic salmon,brown trout,European eel,[69]bullhead,brook lamprey andgrayling.[91] A possibly unique population of "wild"rainbow trout survives on theDerbyshire Wye,[92] following their introduction at the turn of the 20th century.[93]
Butterflies in the region include thedingy skipper,brown argus,small blue andwhite-letter hairstreak. Moths include theanomalous,broom moth,dot moth,garden dart,mouse moth andwhite ermine. Other invertebrates include thebilberry bumblebee,broad groove-head spider,mole cricket,northern yellow splinter,shining guest ant,violet oil beetle andwhite-clawed crayfish.[69]
The Peak District National Park was the first national park to be designated in the United Kingdom, on 17 April 1951 (following the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act of 1949 and a resulting public enquiry to establish its boundary).[94] It was one of ten parks created in the 1950s in the wake of the 1945 Dower Report and 1947Hobhouse Report, which recommended the creation of national parks in England and Wales.[95][96] The park has an area of 1,438 square kilometres (555 sq mi) and receives approximately 13 million visitors each year.[97] 90% of the national park is privately owned, with the largest single owner being theNational Trust (12%).[98]
The national park is governed by the Peak District National Park Authority, which was established under the 1995 Environment Act, replacing the Peak Park Planning Board.[99] The authority has 30 members, 14 appointed by theSecretary of State for Environment, Food, and Rural Affairs and 16 appointed by the local authorities covered by the park. The local authorities and the number of members they appoint are as follows:[100]
| Local authority | Members |
|---|---|
| Cheshire East Council | 1 |
| Derbyshire County Council | 4 |
| Staffordshire County Council | 1 |
| Barnsley Metropolitan Borough Council | 1 |
| Derbyshire Dales District Council | 2 |
| High Peak Borough Council | 2 |
| Kirklees Metropolitan Borough Council | 1 |
| North East Derbyshire District Council | 1 |
| Oldham Metropolitan Borough Council | 1 |
| Sheffield City Council | 1 |
| Staffordshire Moorlands District Council | 1 |
The Peak has been inhabited from the earliest periods of human activity, as shown by finds ofMesolithic flint artefacts andpalaeo-environmental evidence from caves in Dovedale and elsewhere. Signs ofNeolithic activity include monumental earthworks orbarrows such as the one atMargery Hill.[101]
TheBronze Age saw the area well populated and farmed. Evidence remains inhenges such asArbor Low nearYoulgreave and theNine Ladies stone circle atStanton Moor.[102][page needed] In the same period and into theIron Age, hill forts such as Mam Tor's were created. TheRomans drew on the area's rich mineral veins, exporting lead from the Buxton area along well-used routes. Buxton was a Roman settlement known as "Aquae Arnemetiae" for its spring.[103]
ThePecsaetan or peaklanders, anAnglo-Saxon tribe, inhabited the central and northern parts of the area from the 6th century CE, when it belonged to the Anglian kingdom ofMercia.[104][105][page needed] Barrows from theAnglo-Saxon period are present, includingBenty Grange, where theeponymous helmet was found.[106]
In medieval and early modern times, the area was mainly agricultural, with sheep farming, rather than arable the main activity in upland holdings. From the 16th century, the mineral and geological wealth became increasingly significant. Not only lead, but coal,fluorite, copper fromEcton Mines,zinc,iron,manganese and silver have been mined.[107][page needed]Celia Fiennes, describing a journey through the Peak in 1697, wrote of:
...Craggy hills Whose Bowells are full of mines of all kinds off Black and white and veined Marbles, and some have mines of Copper, others tinn and Leaden mines, in wch is a great deale of silver.
— Celia Fiennes,Through England on a Side Saddle in the Time of William and Mary[108]
Coal measures occur on the Peak's western and eastern fringes. Evidence of past workings can be found from Glossop toThe Roaches, and fromStocksbridge toBaslow. The coal measures in the east are at the western edge of theSouth Yorkshire Coalfield.[109] Those in the west are part of the Cheshire section of theLancashire Coalfield.[110] Mining started inmedieval times, was at its most productive in the 18th and early 19th centuries, and continued into the early 20th century. The earliest mining took place aroundoutcrops, where miners followed the seams deeper into the hillsides. At Goyt's Moss andAxe Edge, deep seams were worked and steam engines raised the coal and dewatered the mines.[111] Coal from the east was used in lead smelting and from the west for lime burning.[112]
Lead mining peaked in the 17th and 18th centuries; high concentrations were found in the area from this period, along with peat on Kinder Scout, suggesting that lead smelting occurred.[113] Lead mining declined from the mid-19th century, with the last major mine closing in 1939. Lead is a by-product of fluorite, baryte and calcite mining.[59]Bell pits were sunk to access ore that lay close to the surface.[113]
Fluorite or fluorspar is calledBlue John locally, its name possibly from the Frenchbleu et jaune describing its colour. Blue John is scarce and now only a few hundred kilograms are mined each year for ornamental andlapidary use. TheBlue John Cavern in Castleton is ashow cave. Small-scale mining takes place inTreak Cliff Cavern.[114]
Industrial limestone quarrying to make soda ash started around Buxton in 1874. In 1926 the operation of theBuxton lime industry became part ofICI.[115] Large-scale limestone and gritstone quarrying flourished as lead mining declined, and is an important if contentious industry. Of the twelve large limestone quarries in operation,Tunstead is one of the largest in Europe.[116] Total limestone output was substantial: at the 1990 peak, 8.5 million tonnes was produced.[117]
Textiles have been exported for hundreds of years. In the 14th century, the area traded in unprocessed wool.[118] There were several skilled hand spinners and weavers in the area. By the 1780s,Richard Arkwright had developed machinery to produce textiles faster and to a higher standard. The early Arkwrightmills were of light construction, narrow, about 9 feet (2.7 m) wide and low, the ceiling height being only 6 to 8 feet (1.8 to 2.4 m) and lit by daylight. The new machines were powered bywater wheels.[119] The Peak was the ideal location, with its rivers and humid atmosphere. The local pool of labour was quickly exhausted andLitton Mill andCressbrook Mill inMillers Dale brought in children as young as four from theworkhouses of London as apprentices.[120]
As technology advanced, narrow valleys proved unsuited to larger steam-driven mills, but Derbyshire mills remained to trade in finishing and niche products. Glossop benefited from the textile industry. Its economy was tied to a spinning and weaving tradition that evolved from developments intextile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution. Until the First World War, Glossop was the headquarters of the largesttextile printworks in the world, but after theWall Street crash its product lines became vulnerable and the industry declined.[121]
TheKinder Trespass in 1932 was a landmark in the campaign for open access to moorland in Britain and eventually led to the formation of Britain'snational parks. Before the trespass, open moorland was closed to all. Moorland estates were the private property of landed gentry who used them for only 12 days a year and were guarded by their gamekeepers.[122] The Peak District National Park became the United Kingdom's first national park on 17 April 1951.[123] CampaignerEthel Haythornthwaite played an important part in the development of the national park.[124] The firstlong-distance footpath in the United Kingdom was thePennine Way, which opened in 1965 and starts at the Nags Head Inn, in Grindsbook Booth, part ofEdale village.[125]
ThePeak & Northern Footpaths Society (PNFS) was formed in 1894 to monitor, protect, and improve the footpath network of the Peak District and surrounding areas. The organisation is the oldest existing regional footpath society in the UK.[126]
Saddleworth Moor andWessenden, above Meltham, gained notoriety after theMoors murders in the 1960s.[127][128]
Agriculture remains a significant sector for the park. A Park District report stated that in 2019, over 87% of the Peak District was being farmed.[129] Another report, updated in 2023, added this information: "Farming is also one of the largest contributors to the park’s economy employing over 3500 people, which makes up 18.5% of total employment in the national park.[130] That is understandable, since as of 2019, over 87% of the Peak District was being farmed.[129] A State of the Park report indicated that in 2019, "at least 1 in 3 businesses in the Peak District [were] in the agricultural, forestry and fishing industries".[131]
Tourism in the park and Derbyshire was negatively affected by the pandemic.[132] However, according to a September 2022 report, this sector is a major industry in the "Peak District and Derbyshire, attracting 45 million visitors annually, generating an output of £2.5 billion into the economy and supporting 31,000 jobs.[133] (Data are not available for the park area only.)
Other sources of employment for park residents according to a 2009 report: Manufacturing (19%) andquarrying (12%) are also important.[134] Thecement works atHope is the largest single employer in the park.[117] Limestone is the most important mineral quarried, mainly for roads and cement; shale is extracted for cement at Hope, and severalgritstone quarries are worked for building stone.[117]Lead mining is no longer economic, butfluorite,baryte andcalcite are extracted from lead veins and small-scale Blue John mining occurs at Castleton.
The springs at Buxton and Ashbourne are exploited for bottledmineral water and manyplantations are managed fortimber. Other manufacturing includesDavid Mellor'scutlery factory inHathersage,Ferodobrake linings inChapel-en-le-Frith andelectronic equipment in Castleton.
De Mirabilibus Pecci orThe Seven Wonders of the Peak byThomas Hobbes was an early touring description published in 1636.[135] Much scorn was poured on the seven wonders by visitors, includingDaniel Defoe, who called the moors byChatsworth "a waste and houling wilderness" and scorned particularlyPeak Cavern near Castleton, known as the "Devil's Arse".[136] Visitor numbers did not rise until theVictorian era, when railways provided access and cultural appreciation of thePicturesque andRomantic developed.John Mawe'sMineralogy of Derbyshire (1802)[137] and William Adam'sGem of the Peak (1843)[138] raised interest in the area's unique geology.
A tradition of public access and outdoor recreation grew up in what is a natural hinterland and rural escape for the people of industrial Manchester and Sheffield, and remains a valuable resource in a largelypost-industrial economy. In a 2005 survey of visitors, 85 per cent of respondents cited "scenery and landscape" as a draw.[139]
Buxton became a spa through its geothermal spring, which rises at a constant temperature of 28 °C. It was settled by the Romans around 78 CE, then known as Aquae Arnemetiae – the spa of the goddess of the grove.Bess of Hardwick and her husband theEarl of Shrewsbury "took the waters" in 1569, bringingMary, Queen of Scots there in 1573.[140] The town largely grew in importance in the late 18th century when it was developed by the5th Duke of Devonshire in style of the spa ofBath.
A resurgence in the 18th century attractedDr Erasmus Darwin andJosiah Wedgwood,[141] who were drawn by the reputed healing properties of the waters. The railway reached Buxton in 1863.[142][page needed]Buxton's notable buildings are The Crescent (1780–1784), modelled byJohn Carr on Bath'sRoyal Crescent, the Devonshire (1780–1789), the Natural Baths, and the Pump Room byHenry Currey. ThePavilion Gardens opened in 1871.[140]Buxton Opera House was designed byFrank Matcham in 1903.
Historic buildings in the park includeChatsworth House, seat of the Dukes of Devonshire and among Britain's finest stately homes; the medievalHaddon Hall, seat of theDukes of Rutland; andLyme Park, an Elizabethan manor house transformed by anItalianate front. Other historic buildings in the park includeEyam Hall,Ilam Hall andTissington Hall.[143] Many villages and towns have fine parish churches, including the 14th-centuryChurch of St John the Baptist at Tideswell, sometimes dubbed the "Cathedral of the Peak", and the 12th-centuryChurch of St Nicholas atHigh Bradfield. 'Little John's Grave' is in the churchyard atHathersage.Peveril Castle, overlooking Castleton, was built by theNormans.[144]
Inside the park,Eyam Museum has displays on the village's history during theBlack Death.[145] Castleton has four show caves;Peak Cavern,Blue John,Treak Cliff andSpeedwell. In the outer fringes, the area's industrial heritage is represented by themining museum at Matlock Bath, with the Temple Lead Mine, theDerwent Valley MillsWorld Heritage Site andBrindley Water Mill at Leek. Preserved railways such as thePeak Rail,Ecclesbourne Valley[146] andChurnet Valley lines,[147] theNational Tramway Museum atCrich and theCromford Canal chart the area's transport history. Matlock Bath also has the show caves and mines of theHeights of Abraham, which can be reached by cable car, and theGulliver's Kingdom theme park.[144] Buxton has an opera house and theatre, museum and art gallery andPoole's Cavern show cave.[37] Other attractions in the fringes include theAlton Towers theme park[144] and thePeak Wildlife Park.
Well dressing ceremonies are held in many villages in the spring and summer months, a tradition said to date from pagan times.[148] Other local customs includeCastleton Garland Day and Ashbourne'sRoyal Shrovetide Football, played annually since the 12th century. Buxton hosts two opera festivals, theBuxton Festival and theInternational Gilbert and Sullivan Festival, and the Buxton Festival Fringe, and thePeak Literary Festival is held at various locations twice a year. Peak District food specialities include the dessertBakewell pudding, very different from the nationally availableBakewell tart, and the famous cheeseStilton and other local cheeses are produced in the village ofHartington.[149]
An extensive network of public footpaths and long-distance trails of over 1,800 miles (2,900 km) in total[150] and large open-access areas are available for hillwalking and hiking. ThePennine Way traverses the Dark Peak from Edale to the park's northern boundary just south ofStandedge.Bridleways are used bymountain bikers, as well as horse riders. TheTissington Trail andHigh Peak Trail, which reuse former railway lines, are well used by walkers, horse riders and cyclists.[151] ThePeak District Boundary Walk is a circular 190-mile (310 km) walking trail around the national park.[152]
Several old rail routes were converted into multi-purpose cycle trails. After the Woodhead Line closed betweenHadfield andPenistone, some of the trackbed was used for theLongdendale Trail section of theTrans Pennine Trail between Hadfield andWoodhead.[153] The Manchester, Buxton, Matlock and Midlands Junction Railway betweenRowsley and Buxton contributed to theMonsal Trail.[154] The trackbed of the Cromford and High Peak Railway is open as the High Peak Trail.[155] The Tissington Trail uses another disused rail line between Buxton and Ashbourne,[151] while theManifold Way follows the old line of theLeek and Manifold Valley Light Railway betweenWaterhouses andHulme End.[156]
Local authorities run cycle hire centres at Ashbourne,Parsley Hay,Middleton Top, theUpper Derwent Valley and Hulme End.[157][158][159] Wheelchair access is possible at several places on the ex-railway trails, and cycle hire centres offer vehicles adapted to wheelchair users.[151] A project to make footpaths more accessible to less-agile walkers has replaced stiles with gates.[160]
Gritstone outcrops atStanage Edge andThe Roaches, are recognised as some of the finestrock climbing sites in the world.[161] Limestone is more unstable but provides many testing climbs.Thor's Cave was explored in the early 1950s byJoe Brown and others. Eleven limestone routes there are listed by theBMC, ranging ingrade from Very Severe to E7, and several more have been claimed since the guidebook's publication; a few routes are bolted.[162]
Caving takes place in the natural caves, potholes and old mine workings found in the limestone of the White Peak. Peak Cavern, the largest and most important cave system, is even linked to theSpeedwell system at Winnats. The largest potholes are Eldon Hole and Nettle Pot. Many old mine workings were often extensions of natural cave systems. They can be found at Castleton, Winnats, Matlock,Stoney Middleton, Eyam,Monyash and Buxton.[163]
Reservoirs such asTorside Reservoir,Damflask Reservoir,Carsington Water andRudyard Lake are centres forwater sports, including sailing, fishing andcanoeing. Other activities include air sports such ashang gliding andparagliding,birdwatching,fell running,off-roading, andorienteering.[161]
The first roads constructed by theRomans may have followed existing tracks. The Roman network linked the settlements and forts of Aquae Arnemetiae (Buxton),Chesterfield,Ardotalia (Glossop), Navio (Brough and Shatton) and beyond.[164] Parts of the modernA515 andA53 roads, south of Buxton, are believed to follow the routes of Roman roads.
Packhorse routes crossed the Peak in the Middle Ages and some paved causeways, such as the Long Causeway alongStanage Edge, date from that period. No highways appear onChristopher Saxton's 1579 map of Derbyshire.[165] Bridge-building improved the transport network.
Journey times fell with the introduction ofturnpike roads from 1731,[166] but the ride from Sheffield to Manchester in 1800 still took 16 hours, promptingSamuel Taylor Coleridge to remark that "a tortoise could outgallop us!"[167] From about 1815, better quality turnpike roads were built. TheSnake Pass, part of theA57, was built under the direction ofThomas Telford between 1819 and 1821.[167]
The main roads in the Peak District are:
Roads and lanes are often congested and parking is problematic in towns and villages, especially in summer. A congestion charge was proposed in 2005, but was rejected.[168]
Cromford Canal opened in 1794 to carry coal, lead and iron ore to theErewash Canal.[169] It closed in 1944. The canals and turnpike roads had to compete with the railways after 1825.[167]
The first railway, theCromford and High Peak Railway fromHigh Peak Junction toWhaley Bridge, was an industrial line. Passenger services followed, including theWoodhead Line (Sheffield to Manchester, via Longdendale) and theManchester, Buxton, Matlock and Midlands Junction Railway. Several railways succumbed to theBeeching Axe in the 1960s, including passenger services on the Woodhead line. Freight services continued until the line was finally closed in 1981; much of the route has been converted to shared-use paths on theTrans Pennine Trail.
Passenger train services currently operate along the following lines:
Coach services provide access to Matlock, Bakewell and Buxton from Derby,Nottingham and Manchester throughTransPeak andNational Express.
There are regular buses from Sheffield, Glossop, Stoke,Leek and Chesterfield.
In rural areas, minibuses operate from towns to smaller villages.
The nearest airports areManchester andEast Midlands.[170][171]
Cycle England invested £1.25 million in building and improving cycle routes in the national park for leisure and commuting.[172]
The proximity of the Peak to conurbations and urban areas (some 20 million people live within an hour's drive) poses challenges for the area.[173] The park authority, National Trust and other landowners try to keep the upland landscape accessible for recreation while protecting it fromintensive farming,erosion and visitor pressures. Tension exists between the needs of conservation, of 38,000 residents,[134] and of millions who visit.[174]
The uneven distribution of visits creates stresses. Dovedale alone receives about two million visitors a year.[30] Other much visited areas include Bakewell, Castleton and theHope Valley, Chatsworth, Hartington and the reservoirs of the Upper Derwent Valley.[175] Over 60 per cent of visits occur between May and September, with Sunday the busiest day.[175]
Footpath users in the more popular walking areas have contributed to serious erosion problems, particularly on the fragilepeat moorlands. The use of some paths by mountain bikers is believed to have exacerbated the problem.[176] Measures to contain the damage include diversion of the official route of the Pennine Way out of Edale, which now goes via Jacob's Ladder rather than following the Grindsbrook, and surfacing moorland footpaths with expensive natural stone.[177] Some rights of way have been damaged by legal and illegal use by off-road vehicles such as4×4s andtrail bikes. Campaigners have sought to reduce their impact.[178]
Large-scale limestone quarrying is contentious. Most mineral extraction licences were issued by national government for 90 years in the 1950s and remain legally binding. The park authority has a policy of considering applications for new quarries and licence renewal in the park in terms of the local and national need for the mineral and how unique the source is, in conjunction with the effects on traffic, residents and the environment.[117] Some licences have not been renewed; the RMC Aggregates quarry atEldon Hill closed in 1999 and was landscaped.[179] Proposals from Stancliffe Stone Ltd to reopen dormant gritstone quarries at Stanton Moor in 1999 became a test case, contested by ecological protesters and residents on the grounds that this would threaten Bronze Age remains at the Nine Ladies Stone Circle and damage the natural landscape.[174] In 2007, negotiations took place to relocate the development to Dale View quarry in a less sensitive area.[180]
Starting in the 1990s, there has been an intensification in management of the upland moors fordriven grouse shooting. This has involved an increase in the use of rotational burning and predator control. Both practices can be controversial and have led to calls for greater controls over the activities of moorland owners.[181] The Birds of Prey Initiative has worked to link conservation groups with landowners, to improve the prospects for predatory birds in the Peak District. This has led to improvement in the numbers of breeding birds of prey, but overall numbers remain low.[182] The RSPB withdrew support for the scheme in 2018, citing the continued and illegal persecution of raptors by commercial grouse shooting estates, represented within the Initiative by the Moorland Association and National Gamekeepers' Organisation.[183]
The grasslands of the White Peak plateau have been improved for intensive farm and food production. The result has been that most of this grassland is of little value to nature conservation, often with only one grass species present. The best areas that remain are the steep sides of limestone valleys. These have international importance, but are fragmented, which makes them vulnerable to loss.[184] Biodiversity within Britain's national parks has generally fared no better than that in the wider countryside, with similar rates of decline in species numbers.[185] One reason may be that their powers are directed primarily at preventing intrusive development to protect the aesthetic and historic appearance of the park, rather than at land management.
The upland moors of the south Pennines suffered some of the worst ecological degradation of any extensive habitat in the UK. This is due mainly to a history of industrial pollution from neighbouring towns during theindustrial revolution, worsened by wild fires and erosion. Work to restore this habitat got underway in the 21st century. While progress has been made, there is more to do to make it a sustainable, functioning ecosystem.[186] The significance of the habitat degradation is compounded by its being a source of atmospheric carbon dioxide that contributes to climate change throughglobal warming.[187]
The landscapes of the Peak have inspired writers for centuries. Various places have been identified by Ralph Elliott and others as locations in the 14th-century poemSir Gawain and the Green Knight;Lud's Church is thought to be theGreen Chapel.[188]
Key scenes inJane Austen's 1813 novelPride and Prejudice are set in the Peak.[189]Peveril of the Peak (1823) bySir Walter Scott is a historical novel set at Peveril Castle, Castleton, in the reign ofCharles II.[190][191]William Wordsworth was a frequent visitor to Matlock; the Peak inspired several of his poems, including an 1830sonnet to Chatsworth House.[192] The village ofMorton inCharlotte Brontë's 1847 novelJane Eyre is based on Hathersage, where Brontë stayed in 1845;Thornfield Hall may have been inspired by nearby North Lees Hall.[193][194] Snowfield inGeorge Eliot's novelAdam Bede (1859) is thought to be based on Wirksworth, where her uncle managed a mill;Ellastone (as Hayslope) andAshbourne (as Oakbourne) also feature.[192]
Beatrix Potter, author ofPeter Rabbit, visited her uncle Edmund Potter at his printworks inDinting Vale. She copied cloth samples from his pattern book for her characters. Mrs Tiggywinkle's shawl, inThe Tale of Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle, is based on pattern number 222714.[195]
Children's authorAlison Uttley (1884–1976) was born atCromford; her novelA Traveller in Time, set inDethick, recounts theBabington Plot to freeMary, Queen of Scots, from imprisonment.[196]Crichton Porteous (1901–1991) set several books in Peak locations;Toad Hole,Lucky Columbell andBroken River take place in theDerwent Valley.[197]Geraldine Brooks's first novel,Year of Wonders (2001), blends fact and fiction in the story of the plague village of Eyam.[198] Eyam also inspiredChildren of Winter by children's novelistBerlie Doherty, who has set several other works in the Peak, includingDeep Secret, based on the drowning of the villages ofDerwent andAshopton by the Ladybower Reservoir, andBlue John, inspired by the cavern at Castleton.[199]
Many works of crime and horror have been set in the Peak.The Terror of Blue John Gap bySir Arthur Conan Doyle (1859–1930) recounts terrible events at the Blue John mines.[200]Sherlock Holmes investigates the kidnapping of a child inThe Adventure of the Priory School.[201] Many horror stories by local authorRobert Murray Gilchrist feature Peak settings.[192]Stephen Booth has set a crime-fiction series in real and imagined Peak locations,[202] whileIn Pursuit of the Proper Sinner, anInspector Lynley mystery byElizabeth George, is set on the fictional Calder Moor.[203] Another local author who sets crime novels there isSarah Ward.[204]
Other writers and poets who lived in or visited the Peak includeSamuel Johnson,William Congreve,Anna Seward,Jean-Jacques Rousseau,Lord Byron,Thomas Moore,Richard Furness,D. H. Lawrence,Vera Brittain,Richmal Crompton andNat Gould.[192][196] The landscapes and historic houses are popular settings for film and television. The classic 1955 filmThe Dam Busters was filmed at the UpperDerwent Valley reservoirs, where practice flights for the bombing raids on theRuhr dams had been made during the Second World War.[205]
In adaptations ofPride and Prejudice,Longnor has featured as Lambton, and Lyme Park and Chatsworth House have stood in forPemberley.[206][207] Haddon Hall doubled asThornfield Hall in two adaptations ofJane Eyre and has appeared in several films, includingElizabeth,The Princess Bride andThe Other Boleyn Girl.[208] The television medical dramaPeak Practice set in the fictional village of Cardale was filmed inCrich, Matlock and other Peak locations.[209] The world's longest-running sitcom,Last of the Summer Wine, was filmed inHolmfirth and the surroundingHolme Valley.[210] Thepsychological thrillerDead Man's Shoes was filmed in 2003 in and aroundMatlock,Bonsall,Darley Dale,Tansley andRiber, and featuredRiber Castle.[citation needed]
{{cite journal}}:Cite journal requires|journal= (help)As a sector, hospitality has a vital role in rural and village economies, often providing the main opportunities for enterprise and employment.
| International | |
|---|---|
| National | |
