Palladianism emerged in England in the early 17th century, led byInigo Jones, whoseQueen's House atGreenwich has been described as the first English Palladian building. Its development faltered at the onset of theEnglish Civil War. After theStuart Restoration, the architectural landscape was dominated by the more flamboyantEnglish Baroque. Palladianism returned to fashion after a reaction against the Baroque in the early 18th century, fuelled by the publication of a number of architectural books, including Palladio's ownI quattro libri dell'architettura (The Four Books of Architecture) andColen Campbell'sVitruvius Britannicus. Campbell's book included illustrations ofWanstead House, a building he designed on the outskirts of London and one of the largest and most influential of the early neo-Palladian houses. The movement's resurgence was championed byRichard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington, whose buildings for himself, such asChiswick House andBurlington House, became celebrated. Burlington sponsored the career of the artist, architect and landscaperWilliam Kent, and their joint creation,Holkham Hall inNorfolk, has been described as "the most splendid Palladian house in England".[1] By the middle of the century Palladianism had become almost the national architectural style, epitomised by Kent'sHorse Guards at the centre of the nation's capital.
In the 19th century, Palladianism was overtaken in popularity byNeoclassical architecture in both Europe and in North America. By the middle of that century, both were challenged and then superseded by theGothic Revival in the English-speaking world, whose champions such asAugustus Pugin, remembering the origins of Palladianism in ancient temples, deemed the style too pagan for trueChristian worship. In the 20th and 21st centuries, Palladianism has continued to evolve as an architectural style; itspediments, symmetry andproportions are evident in the design of many modern buildings, while its inspirer is regularly cited as having been among the world's most influential architects.
"True Palladianism" at theVilla Godi (1537–1542) – from Palladio'sI quattro libri dell'architettura. The flanking pavilions are agricultural buildings not part of the villa. In the 18th century, the connecting colonnades evolved asenfilades of rooms while the pavilions often became self-contained wings or blocks – a common feature of 18th century Palladianism
Andrea Palladio was born inPadua in 1508, the son of astonemason.[2] He was inspired byRoman buildings, the writings ofVitruvius (80 BC), and his immediate predecessorsDonato Bramante andRaphael. Palladio aspired to an architectural style that usedsymmetry andproportion to emulate the grandeur ofclassical buildings.[3] His surviving buildings are inVenice, theVeneto region, andVicenza,[4] and includevillas and churches such as theBasilica del Redentore in Venice.[5] Palladio's architecturaltreatises follow the approach defined by Vitruvius and his 15th-century discipleLeon Battista Alberti, who adhered to principles of classical Roman architecture based on mathematical proportions rather than the ornamental style of theRenaissance.[6] Palladio recorded and publicised his work in the 1570 four-volume illustrated study,I quattro libri dell'architettura (The Four Books of Architecture).[7]
Palladio'svillas are designed to fit with their setting.[8] If on a hill, such asVilla Almerico Capra Valmarana (Villa Capra, or La Rotonda),façades were of equal value so that occupants could enjoy views in all directions.[9]Porticos were built on all sides to enable the residents to appreciate the countryside while remaining protected from the sun.[10][n 1] Palladio sometimes used aloggia as an alternative to the portico. This is most simply described as a recessed portico, or an internal single storey room with pierced walls that are open to the elements. Occasionally a loggia would be placed at second floor level over the top of another loggia, creating what was known as a double loggia.[12] Loggias were sometimes given significance in a façade by being surmounted by apediment.Villa Godi's focal point is a loggia rather than a portico, with loggias terminating each end of the main building.[13]
Palladio would often model his villa elevations onRoman temple façades. The temple influence, often in acruciform design, later became atrademark of his work.[14][n 2] Palladian villas are usually built with three floors: arusticated basement or ground floor, containing the service and minor rooms; above this, thepiano nobile (noble level), accessed through a portico reached by a flight of external steps, containing the principal reception and bedrooms; and lastly a lowmezzanine floor with secondary bedrooms and accommodation. The proportions of each room (for example, height and width) within the villa were calculated on simple mathematical ratios like 3:4 and 4:5. The arrangement of the different rooms within the house, and the external façades, were similarly determined.[15][n 3] Earlier architects had used these formulas for balancing a single symmetrical façade; however, Palladio's designs related to the entire structure.[13] Palladio set out his views inI quattro libri dell'architettura: "beauty will result from the form and correspondence of the whole, with respect to the several parts, of the parts with regard to each other, and of these again to the whole; that the structure may appear an entire and complete body, wherein each member agrees with the other, and all necessary to compose what you intend to form."[17]
Palladio considered the dual purpose of his villas as the centres of farming estates and weekend retreats.[18] These symmetrical temple-like houses often have equally symmetrical, but low, wings, orbarchessas, sweeping away from them to accommodate horses, farm animals, and agricultural stores.[19] The wings, sometimes detached and connected to the villa bycolonnades, were designed not only to be functional but also to complement and accentuate the villa. Palladio did not intend them to be part of the main house, but the development of the wings to become integral parts of the main building – undertaken by Palladio's followers in the 18th century – became one of the defining characteristics of Palladianism.[20]
Palladian, Serlian,[n 4] or Venetian windows are a trademark of Palladio's early career. There are two different versions of themotif: the simpler one is called aVenetian window, and the more elaborate a Palladian window or "Palladian motif", although this distinction is not always observed.[22]
The Venetian window has three parts: a central high round-arched opening, and two smaller rectangular openings to the sides. The side windows are topped bylintels and supported by columns.[23] This is derived from the ancient Romantriumphal arch, and was first used outside Venice by Donato Bramante and later mentioned bySebastiano Serlio (1475–1554) in his seven-volume architectural bookTutte l'opere d'architettura et prospetiva (All the Works of Architecture and Perspective) expounding the ideals of Vitruvius and Roman architecture.[24] It can be used in series, but is often only used once in a façade, as atNew Wardour Castle,[25] or once at each end, as on the inner façade ofBurlington House (true Palladian windows).[26][n 5]
Palladio's elaboration of this, normally used in a series, places a larger orgiant order in between each window, and doubles the small columns supporting the side lintels, placing the second column behind rather than beside the first. This was introduced in theBiblioteca Marciana in Venice byJacopo Sansovino (1537), and heavily adopted by Palladio in theBasilica Palladiana in Vicenza,[28] where it is used on both storeys; this feature was less often copied. The openings in this elaboration are not strictly windows, as they enclose a loggia.Pilasters might replace columns, as in other contexts. SirJohn Summerson suggests that the omission of the doubled columns may be allowed, but the term "Palladian motif" should be confined to cases where the larger order is present.[29]
Palladio used these elements extensively, for example in very simple form in his entrance toVilla Forni Cerato.[31] It is perhaps this extensive use of the motif in the Veneto that has given the window its alternative name of the Venetian window. Whatever the name or the origin, this form of window has become one of the most enduring features of Palladio's work seen in the later architectural styles evolved from Palladianism.[32][n 6] According toJames Lees-Milne, its first appearance in Britain was in the remodelled wings of Burlington House, London, where the immediate source was in the English court architectInigo Jones's designs forWhitehall Palace rather than drawn from Palladio himself. Lees-Milne describes the Burlington window as "the earliest example of the revived Venetian window in England".[34]
A variant, in which the motif is enclosed within a relievingblind arch that unifies the motif, is not Palladian, though Richard Boyle seems to have assumed it was so, in using a drawing in his possession showing three such features in a plain wall. Modern scholarship attributes the drawing toVincenzo Scamozzi.[n 7] Burlington employed the motif in 1721 for an elevation ofTottenham Park inSavernake Forest for his brother-in-law Lord Bruce (since remodelled).[36][n 8]William Kent used it in his designs for the Houses of Parliament, and it appears in his executed designs for the north front ofHolkham Hall.[38] Another example isClaydon House, inBuckinghamshire; the remaining fragment is one wing of what was intended to be one of two flanking wings to a vast Palladian house. The scheme was never completed and parts of what was built have since been demolished.[30]
During the 17th century, many architects studying in Italy learned of Palladio's work, and on returning home adopted his style, leading to its widespread use across Europe and North America.[40][41] Isolated forms of Palladianism throughout the world were brought about in this way, although the style did not reach the zenith of its popularity until the 18th century.[42] An early reaction to the excesses ofBaroque architecture in Venice manifested itself as a return to Palladian principles. The earliest neo-Palladians there were the exact contemporariesDomenico Rossi (1657–1737)[n 9] andAndrea Tirali (1657–1737).[n 10] Their biographer,Tommaso Temanza, proved to be the movement's most able proponent; in his writings, Palladio's visual inheritance became increasingly codified and moved towardsneoclassicism.[44]
The most influential follower of Palladio was Inigo Jones, who travelled throughout Italy with the art collectorEarl of Arundel in 1613–1614, annotating his copy of Palladio's treatise.[45][n 11][n 12] The "Palladianism" of Jones and his contemporaries and later followers was a style largely of façades, with the mathematical formulae dictating layout not strictly applied. A handful of country houses in England built between 1640 and 1680 are in this style.[48][49] These follow the success of Jones's Palladian designs for theQueen's House atGreenwich,[50] the first English Palladian house,[51] and theBanqueting House atWhitehall, the uncompleted royal palace inLondon ofCharles I.[52]
Wanstead House (1722) – among the first, and largest, of the Neo-Palladian houses; the image is from Colen Campbell'sVitruvius Britannicus.
The Baroque style proved highly popular in continental Europe, but was often viewed with suspicion in England, where it was considered "theatrical, exuberant and Catholic."[58][59] It was superseded in Britain in the first quarter of the 18th century when four books highlighted the simplicity and purity of classical architecture.[60][61] These were:
The Designs of Inigo Jones... with Some Additional Designs, published byWilliam Kent in two volumes in 1727. A further volume,Some Designs of Mr. Inigo Jones and Mr. William Kent was published in 1744 by the architectJohn Vardy, an associate of Kent.[63]
The most favoured among patrons was the four-volumeVitruvius Britannicus by Campbell,[64][65][n 13] The series contains architectural prints of British buildings inspired by the great architects from Vitruvius to Palladio; at first mainly those of Inigo Jones, but the later works contained drawings and plans by Campbell and other 18th-century architects.[67][n 14] These four books greatly contributed to Palladian architecture becoming established in 18th-century Britain.[69] Campbell and Kent became the most fashionable and sought-after architects of the era. Campbell had placed his 1715 designs for the colossalWanstead House near to the front ofVitruvius Britannicus, immediately following the engravings of buildings by Jones and Webb, "as an exemplar of what new architecture should be".[70] On the strength of the book, Campbell was chosen as the architect forHenry Hoare I'sStourhead house.[71] Hoare's brother-in-law,William Benson, had designedWilbury House, the earliest 18th-century Palladian house in Wiltshire, which Campbell had also illustrated inVitruvius Britannicus.[72][n 15]
Holkham Hall, South front (1734) – the four flanking wings are elevated, in height and importance, almost to the status of the central block.
At the forefront of the new school of design was the "architect earl",Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington, according toDan Cruikshank the "man responsible for this curious elevation of Palladianism to the rank of a quasi-religion".[74][75][n 16] In 1729 he and Kent designedChiswick House.[77][78] This house was a reinterpretation of Palladio's Villa Capra, but purified of 16th century elements and ornament.[79] This severe lack of ornamentation was to be a feature of English Palladianism.[80]
In 1734 Kent and Burlington designedHolkham Hall inNorfolk.[81][82]James Stevens Curl considers it "the most splendid Palladian house in England".[1] The main block of the house followed Palladio's dictates, but his low, often detached, wings of farm buildings were elevated in significance. Kent attached them to the design, banished the farm animals, and elevated the wings to almost the same importance as the house itself.[83] It was the development of the flanking wings that was to cause English Palladianism to evolve from being a pastiche of Palladio's original work. Wings were frequently adorned with porticos and pediments, often resembling, as at the much laterKedleston Hall, smallcountry houses in their own right.[84][n 17]
Woburn Abbey (1746) – designed by Burlington's studentHenry Flitcroft and showing further development of the wings
Architectural styles evolve and change to suit the requirements of each individual client. When in 1746 theDuke of Bedford decided to rebuildWoburn Abbey, he chose the fashionable Palladian style, and selected the architectHenry Flitcroft, a protégé of Burlington.[85][86] Flitcroft's designs, while Palladian in nature, had to comply with the Duke's determination that the plan and footprint of the earlier house, originally aCistercian monastery, be retained.[87] The central block is small, has only three bays, while the temple-like portico is merely suggested, and is closed. Two great flanking wings containing a vast suite ofstate rooms[88] replace the walls or colonnades which should have connected to the farm buildings;[n 18] the farm buildings terminating the structure are elevated in height to match the central block and givenPalladian windows, to ensure they are seen as of Palladian design.[90] This development of the style was to be repeated in many houses and town halls in Britain over one hundred years. Often the terminating blocks would have blind porticos and pilasters themselves, competing for attention with, or complementing the central block. This was all very far removed from the designs of Palladio two hundred years earlier. Falling from favour during theVictorian era, the approach was revived by SirAston Webb for his refacing ofBuckingham Palace in 1913.[91][n 19]
The villa tradition continued throughout the late 18th century, particularly in the suburbs around London.Sir William Chambers built many examples, such asParkstead House.[94] But the grander English Palladian houses were no longer the small but exquisite weekend retreats that their Italian counterparts were intended as. They had become "power houses", in Sir John Summerson's words, the symbolic centres of the triumph and dominance of theWhig Oligarchy who ruled Britain unchallenged for some fifty years after the death ofQueen Anne.[95][96] Summerson thought Kent'sHorse Guards on Whitehall epitomised "the establishment of Palladianism as the official style of Great Britain".[63] As the style peaked, thoughts of mathematical proportion were swept away. Rather than square houses with supporting wings, these buildings had the length of the façade as their major consideration: long houses often only one room deep were deliberately deceitful in giving a false impression of size.[97]
Castletown House (1722) – an Irish Palladian house where the wings flank, but are separate from the house and are joined by colonnades, closely following Palladio's approach
During the Palladian revival period in Ireland, even modest mansions were cast in a neo-Palladian mould. Irish Palladian architecture subtly differs from the England style. While adhering as in other countries to the basic ideals of Palladio, it is often truer to them.[98] In Ireland, Palladianism became political; both theoriginal and thepresentIrish parliaments inDublin occupy Palladian buildings.[99][n 20]
The Irish architect SirEdward Lovett Pearce (1699–1733) became a leading advocate.[101] He was a cousin of Sir John Vanbrugh, and originally one of his pupils. He rejected the Baroque style, and spent three years studying architecture in France and Italy before returning to Ireland. His most important Palladian work is the formerIrish Houses of Parliament in Dublin.[102] Christine Casey, in her 2005 volumeDublin, in thePevsner Buildings of Ireland series, considers the building, "arguably the most accomplished public set-piece of the Palladian style in [Britain]".[103] Pearce was a prolific architect who went on to design the southern façade ofDrumcondra House in 1725[104] andSummerhill House in 1731,[105] which was completed after his death byRichard Cassels.[106] Pearce also oversaw the building ofCastletown House near Dublin, designed by the Italian architectAlessandro Galilei (1691–1737).[98] It is perhaps the only Palladian house in Ireland built with Palladio's mathematical ratios, and one of a number of Irish mansions which inspired the design of theWhite House inWashington, D.C.[107]
Palladio's influence in North America is evident almost from its first architect-designed buildings.[n 22] The Irish philosopherGeorge Berkeley, who may be America's first recorded Palladian, bought a large farmhouse inMiddletown,Rhode Island, in the late 1720s, and added a Palladian doorcase derived from Kent'sDesigns of Inigo Jones (1727), which he may have brought with him from London.[119] Palladio's work was included in the library of a thousand volumes amassed forYale College.[120]Peter Harrison's 1749 designs for theRedwood Library inNewport,Rhode Island, borrow directly from Palladio'sI quattro libri dell'architettura, while his plan for the Newport Brick Market, conceived a decade later, is also Palladian.[121]
Two colonial period houses that can be definitively attributed to designs fromI quattro libri dell'architettura are theHammond-Harwood House (1774) inAnnapolis, Maryland, andThomas Jefferson's firstMonticello (1770). Hammond-Harwood was designed by the architectWilliam Buckland in 1773–1774 for the wealthy farmer Matthias Hammond ofAnne Arundel County, Maryland. The design source is the Villa Pisani,[122] and that for the first Monticello, theVilla Cornaro atPiombino Dese.[123] Both are taken from Book II, Chapter XIV ofI quattro libri dell'architettura.[124] Jefferson later made substantial alterations to Monticello, known as the second Monticello (1802–1809),[125] making the Hammond-Harwood House the only remaining house in North America modelled directly on a Palladian design.[126][127]
Jefferson referred toI quattro libri dell'architettura as hisbible.[n 23] Although a statesman, his passion was architecture,[130] and he developed an intense appreciation of Palladio's architectural concepts; his designs for theJames BarbourBarboursville estate, theVirginia State Capitol, and theUniversity of Virginia campus were all based on illustrations from Palladio's book.[131][132][n 24] Realising the political significance of ancient Roman architecture to the fledgling American Republic, Jefferson designed his civic buildings, such asThe Rotunda,[134] in the Palladian style, echoing in his buildings for thenew republic examples from theold.[135]
InVirginia and theCarolinas, the Palladian style is found in numerousplantation houses, such asStratford Hall,[136]Westover Plantation[137] andDrayton Hall.[138] Westover's north and south entrances, made of imported EnglishPortland stone, were patterned after a plate in William Salmon'sPalladio Londinensis (1734).[139][n 25] The distinctive feature of Drayton Hall, its two-storey portico, was derived from Palladio,[141] as wasMount Airy, inRichmond County, Virginia, built in 1758–1762.[142] A particular feature of American Palladianism was the re-emergence of the great portico which, as in Italy, fulfilled the need of protection from the sun; the portico in various forms and size became a dominant feature of American colonial architecture. In the north European countries the portico had become a mere symbol, often closed, or merely hinted at in the design by pilasters, and sometimes in very late examples of English Palladianism adapted to become aporte-cochère; in America, the Palladian portico regained its full glory.[143]
The White House in Washington, D.C., was inspired by Irish Palladianism.[107] Its architectJames Hoban, who built the executive mansion between 1792 and 1800, was born inCallan,County Kilkenny, in 1762, the son of tenant farmers on the estate ofDesart Court, a Palladian House designed by Pearce.[144] He studied architecture in Dublin, whereLeinster House (builtc. 1747) was one of the finest Palladian buildings of the time.[107] Both Cassel's Leinster House andJames Wyatt'sCastle Coole have been cited as Hoban's inspirations for the White House but the moreneoclassical design of that building, particularly of the South façade which closely resembles Wyatt's 1790 design for Castle Coole, suggests that Coole is perhaps the more directprogenitor. The architectural historianGervase Jackson-Stops describes Castle Coole as "a culmination of the Palladian traditions, yet strictly neoclassical in its chaste ornament and noble austerity",[145] while Alistair Rowan, in his 1979 volume,North West Ulster, of theBuildings of Ireland series, suggests that, at Coole, Wyatt designed a building, "more massy, more masculine and more totally liberated from Palladian practice than anything he had done before."[146]
Because of its later development, Palladian architecture in Canada is rarer. In her 1984 study,Palladian Style in Canadian Architecture, Nathalie Clerk notes its particular impact on public architecture, as opposed to the private houses in the United States.[147] One example of historical note is theNova Scotia Legislature building, completed in 1819.[148] Another example isGovernment House inSt. John's, Newfoundland.[149]
By the 1770s, British architects such asRobert Adam andWilliam Chambers were in high demand, but were now drawing on a wide variety of classical sources, including fromancient Greece, so much so that their forms of architecture became defined as neoclassical rather than Palladian.[156][157] In Europe, the Palladian revival ended by the close of the 18th century. In the 19th century, proponents of theGothic Revival such asAugustus Pugin, remembering the origins of Palladianism in ancient temples, considered it pagan, and unsuited to Anglican and Anglo-Catholic worship.[158][159][n 26] In North America, Palladianism lingered a little longer; Thomas Jefferson's floor plans and elevations owe a great deal to Palladio'sI quattro libri dell'architettura.[161]
The termPalladian is often misused in modern discourse and tends to be used to describe buildings with any classical pretensions.[162][163] There was a revival of a more serious Palladian approach in the 20th century whenColin Rowe, an influential architectural theorist, published his essay,The Mathematics of the Ideal Villa, (1947), in which he drew links between the compositional "rules" in Palladio's villas andLe Corbusier's villas at Poissy and Garches.[164][165] Suzanne Walters' articleThe Two Faces of Modernism suggests a continuing influence of Palladio's ideas on architects of the 20th century.[166][n 27] In the 21st century Palladio's name regularly appears among the world's most influential architects.[168][169][170] In England,Raymond Erith (1904–1973) drew on Palladian inspirations, and was followed in this by his pupil, subsequently partner,Quinlan Terry.[171] Their work, and that of others,[155] led the architectural historianJohn Martin Robinson to suggest that "theQuattro Libri continues as the fountainhead of at least one strand in theEnglish country house tradition."[172][n 28][n 29]
^Palladio's description of the Villa Capra includes the commentary; "One enjoys the most beautiful views on all sides and for this reason, porticos have been built on all four sides."[11]
^Giles Worsley, in his studyInigo Jones and the European Classicist Tradition, writes; "The portico is so strongly associated today with the country house, and specifically with Palladio's villas, it is easy to forget that, outside of the Veneto, it was principally associated with religious buildings until the late seventeenth century".[10]
^Wundram and Pape describe Palladio's approach in the chapter on the Villa Capra in their 2004 study,Palladio: The Complete Buildings; "The proportions and principles become clear in the ground-plan with positively mathematical precision. The porticos take up half the width of the cubical central building. The column entrance halls and flights of steps each correspond to half the depth of the core of the building. In other words, the sum of the four porticos and flights of steps covers the same area as the main building."[16]
^AfterSebastiano Serlio (1475–1554), an architect and illustrator whoseL'Architetturra was a model for Palladio'sI quattro libri dell'architettura.[21]
^The architectural historianTimothy Mowl notes that the placing of the Venetian windows in each end bay was, in fact, "something Palladio never did."[27]
^A notable example in America is the Palladian window set into the north front ofMount Vernon,George Washington's home in Virginia. The centrepiece of the New Room, and installed during Washington's second rebuilding, the window draws heavily on a design fromBatty Langley'sCity and Country Builder's and Workman's Treasury of Designs, published in 1750.[33]
^Inigo Jones met Scamozzi in Venice in 1613–1614 and the former's acerbic criticisms of the latter, "in this as in most things Scamozzi errs", have been much analysed by architectural historians. Nonetheless, Giles Worsley notes the large number of books and drawings by Scamozzi Jones held in his library, and their considerable influence on his work.[35]
^A design by Burlington for a Kitchen block at Tottenham draws inspiration very directly from a Palladio design for theVilla Valmarana (Vigardolo).[37]
^Rossi built the new façade for the rebuiltSant'Eustachio, known in Venice as San Stae, 1709, which was among the most sober in a competition that was commemorated with engravings of the submitted designs, and he rebuiltCa' Corner della Regina, 1724–1727.[43]
^Inigo Jones's annotated copy ofI quattro libri dell'architettura is held in the library ofWorcester College, Oxford. Summerson described it as "a document fraught with great significance for English architecture."[46]
^Jones travelled as far south asNaples where he closely studied the church ofSan Paolo Maggiore. Palladio had written about, and illustrated, this church which, before severe damage inan earthquake in 1688, "looked like the Roman temple it essentially was".[47]
^Modern scholarship suggests that Campbell's talents as a copyist and self-publicist exceeded his architectural ability.John Harris, in his 1995 catalogueThe Palladian Revival, accuses Campbell of "outrageous plagiari[sm]".[66]
^Howard Colvin writes; "It was a book with a message, the superiority of ‘antique simplicity’ over the ‘affected and licentious’ forms of the Baroque".[68]
^James Stevens Curl considers Burlington, "one of the most potent influences on the development of English architecture in its entire history".[76]
^At Holkham, the four wings contain a chapel, a kitchen, a guest wing and a private family wing.[82]
^The architectural historianMark Girouard, in his work,Life In The English Country House, notes that the arrangement developed by Palladio with the wings of the villa containing farm buildings was never followed in England. Although there are examples in Ireland and in North America, such "a close connection between house and farm was entirely at variance with the English tradition".[89]
^So much of Dublin was built in the 18th century that it set aGeorgian stamp on the city; however, due to poor planning and poverty, Dublin was until recently one of the few cities where fine 18th-century housing could be seen in ruinous condition.[100]
^A brief survey isRobert Tavernor, "Anglo-Palladianism and the birth of a new nation" inPalladio and Palladianism, (1991), pp.181–209;Walter Muir Whitehill,Palladio in America, (1978) is still the standard work.
^An exhibition,Jefferson and Palladio: Constructing a New World was held at the Palladio Museum inVicenza in 2015–2016. The exhibition was dedicated toMario Valmarana, Professor of Architecture at theUniversity of Virginia and a descendant of the family who commissioned Palladio to design theVilla Valmarana.[128][129]
^In a letter to James Oldham, dated Christmas Eve 1804, Jefferson wrote, "there never was a Palladio here even in private hands until I brought one. I send you my portable edition. It contains only the 1st book on theorders, which is the essential part".[133]
^Specifically, both doors seem to have been derived from plates XXV and XXVI ofPalladio Londinensis, a builder's guide first published in London in 1734, the year when the doorways may have been installed.[140]
^InContrasts, his trumpet blast against Classical architectural forms, Pugin quotes approvingly fromCharles Forbes René de Montalembert; "modern Catholics have formed the types of their churches from the detestable models of pagan error, raising temples in imitation of theParthenon and thePantheon, representing the Eternal Father under the semblance ofJupiter, the blessedVirgin as a drapedVenus, saints as amorousnymphs and angels in the form ofCupids."[160]
^The Palladian inspiration for modern British architects has not always been appreciated. In an article inApollo entitled "The curse of Palladio", the criticGavin Stamp critiqued Erith and Terry's work as "photocopy-Palladian, classical details stuck onto dull boxes".[173]
^The continuing Palladian influence in North America has also drawn criticism. The criticStephen Bayley, in a review of the 2009 Palladio exhibition at theRoyal Academy, wrote of "American realtors describ(ing) any dire MiamiMcMansion with a classical portico and the oddvolute asPalladian."[174]
^Sheridan, Pat (2014). "Sir Edward Lovett Pearce 1699–1733: the Palladian architect and his buildings".Dublin Historical Record.67 (2):19–25.JSTOR24615990.
^Dooley, Terence (28 May 2022)."The Power of Ruins". Centre for the Study of Historic Irish Houses and Estates (CSHIHE).Archived from the original on 14 April 2023. Retrieved11 July 2022.
^"Kilboy House". National Inventory of Architectural Heritage.Archived from the original on 28 November 2022. Retrieved23 July 2022.
^"Kilboy House". Francis Terry and Associates.Archived from the original on 23 July 2022. Retrieved23 July 2022.
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