Beijing wasawarded the 2008 Games over four competitors on 13 July 2001, having won a majority of votes from members of theInternational Olympic Committee (IOC) after two rounds of voting.[3] TheGovernment of the People's Republic of China promoted the 2008 Games and invested heavily in new facilities and transport systems. 37 venues were used to host the events, including twelve constructed specifically for the 2008 Games. Theequestrian events were held inHong Kong, making these the third Olympics for which the events were held under the jurisdiction of two different NOCs.[d] Thesailing events were contested inQingdao, while thefootball events took place across several different cities.
The official logo for the 2008 Games, titled "Dancing Beijing" (舞动北京), created byGuo Chunning (郭春宁), featured the Chinese character forcapital (京, stylized into the shape of a human being) in reference to the host city. The 2008 Olympics were watched by 3.5 billion people worldwide, and featured the longest distance for an Olympic Torch relay.[4][5] The 2008 Games also setnumerous world and Olympic records, and were the most expensive Summer Olympics of all time, and the second most expensive overall, after the2014 Winter Games inSochi.[6][7] Theopening ceremony was lauded by spectators and numerous international presses as spectacular, spellbinding, and by many accounts, "the greatest ever in the history of Olympics".[8][9][10] Beijing hosted the2022 Winter Olympics, making it the first city ever to host both the Summer and Winter Games.
An unprecedented 87 countries won at least one medal during the 2008 Games. Host nationChina won the most gold medals (48), and became the seventh different team to top the Summer Olympics medal standings, winning a total of 100 medals overall. TheUnited States placed second in the gold medal tally but won the highest number of medals overall (112). The third place in the gold and overall medal tally was achieved byRussia.
This Olympic Games marked the return of the Summer Olympic Games to Asia after the 1988 Olympics in South Korea. It was the first Olympics forSerbia as a separate state since 1912 and the first forMontenegro, having separated from Serbia in 2006. It was also the first Olympics forNepal as a republic, theMarshall Islands andTuvalu.Mongolia andPanama each won their first Olympic gold medal. In addition,Afghanistan,Mauritius, Serbia,Sudan,Tajikistan andTogo won their first Olympic medals at these Games.North Korea, having symbolically marched with South Korea as one team at the opening ceremonies of the preceding three Games that it entered (2000 inSydney,2004 inAthens, and2006 inTurin), paraded separately this time.
Under the direction ofLiu Qi, Beijing was elected as the host city for the 2008 Summer Olympics on 13 July 2001, during the112thIOC Session in Moscow, defeating bids from Toronto, Paris,Istanbul, andOsaka. Prior to the session, five other cities (Bangkok,Cairo,Havana,Kuala Lumpur, andSeville) had submitted bids to the IOC, but failed to make the short list chosen by the IOC Executive Committee in 2000. After the first round of voting, Beijing held a significant lead over the other four candidates. Osaka received only six votes and was eliminated. In the second round, Beijing was supported by amajority of voters, eliminating the need for subsequent rounds.[11] Toronto's bid was its fifth failure since 1960 (failed bids for 1960, 1964, 1976 and 1996 Games, losing to Rome, Tokyo, Montreal and Atlanta).[12]
Members of the IOC did not disclose their votes, but news reports speculated that broad international support led to China's selection, especially from developing nations that had received assistance from China to construct stadiums. The size of China, its increased enforcement of doping controls, and sympathy concerning its loss of the2000 Summer Olympics to Sydney were all factors in the decision.[3] Eight years earlier, Beijing had led every round ofvoting for the 2000 Summer Olympics before losing to Sydney by two votes in the final round.[13]
Human rights concerns expressed byAmnesty International and politicians in both Europe and North America were considered by the delegates, according to IOC Executive Director François Carrard. Carrard and others suggested that the selection might lead to improvements in human rights in China. In addition, many IOC delegates who had formerly been athletes expressed concern about heat and air quality during the Games, considering the high levels of air pollution in Beijing. China outlined plans to address these environmental concerns in its bid application.[3]
On 6 March 2009, theBeijing Organizing Committee for the Olympic Games reported that total spending on the Games was "generally as much as that of the Athens 2004 Olympic Games", which was equivalent to about US$15 billion. They went on to claim that surplus revenues from the Games would exceed the original target of $16 million.[14] Other reports, however, estimated the total costs from $40 to $44 billion, which would make the Games "far and away the most expensive ever".[15][16][17] Its budget was later exceeded by the2014 Winter Olympics inSochi, which suffered from majorcost overruns; the 2014 Winter Olympics costed roughly US$50 billion in public funding.[18] TheOxford Olympics Study 2016 estimates the outturn cost of the Beijing 2008 Summer Olympics at US$6.8 billion in 2015-dollars. This includes sports-related costs only, such as those incurred by the organizing committee or those incurred by the host city, country, and private investors to build structures required to host the Games. Indirect capital costs—those not directly related to staging the Games—are not included. The Beijing Olympics' cost of US$6.8 billion compares with costs of US$4.6 billion for Rio 2016 and US$15 billion for London 2012.[19]
The showpiece of the 2008 Summer Olympics was the Beijing National Stadium, nicknamed "The Bird's Nest" because of its nest-like skeletal structure. The stadium hosted both theopening andclosing ceremonies, as well as theathletics competition.[24] Construction of the venue began on 24 December 2003. TheGuangdong Olympic Stadium was originally planned, constructed, and completed in 2001 to help host the Games, but a decision was made to construct a new stadium in Beijing.[25] In 2001, the city held a bidding process to select the best arena design. Several criteria were required of each design, including flexibility for post-Olympics use, aretractable roof, and low maintenance costs.[26] The entry list was narrowed to thirteen final designs.[27] The bird's nest model submitted by architects Jacques Herzog and Pierre de Meuron in collaboration with Li Xinggang of China Architecture Design and Research Group (CADG) was selected as the top design by both a professional panel and by a broader audience during a public exhibition. The selection of the design became official in April 2003.[26] Construction of the stadium was a joint venture among the original designers, project architect Stefan Marbach, artistAi Weiwei, and a group of CADG architects led by Li Xinggang. Its $423 million cost was funded by the state-owned corporate conglomerateCITIC and the Beijing State-Owned Assets Management Company.[26][28]
A map of the Olympic venues in Beijing. Several expresswaysencircle the center of the city, providing for quick transportation around the city and between venues.
To prepare for Olympic visitors, Beijing's transportation infrastructure was expanded.Beijing's airport underwent a major renovation with the addition of the new Terminal 3, designed by architectNorman Foster.[29] Within the city itself,Beijing's subway was doubled in capacity and length, with the addition of seven lines and 80 stations to the previously existing four lines and 64 stations. Included in this expansion was a new link connecting to the city's airport. A fleet of thousands of buses, minibuses, and official cars transported spectators, athletes, and officials between venues.[30][31]
In an effort to improve air quality, the city placed restrictions on construction sites and gas stations and limited the use of commercial and passenger vehicles in Beijing.[32] From 20 July through 20 September, passenger vehicle restrictions were placed on alternative days depending on the terminal digit of the car's license plate. It was anticipated that this measure would take 45% of Beijing's 3.3 million cars off the streets. The boosted public transport network was expected to absorb the demand created by these restrictions and the influx of visitors, which was estimated at more than 4 million additional passengers per day.[33]
The 2008 Summer Olympics emblem was known asDancing Beijing. The emblem combined a traditional Chinese red seal and a representation of thecalligraphiccharacter for "capital" (京, also the second character of Beijing's Chinese name) with athletic features. The open arms of the calligraphic word symbolized the invitation from China to the world to share in its culture.IOC presidentJacques Rogge was rather pleased with the emblem, saying, "Your new emblem immediately conveys the awesome beauty and power of China which are embodied in your heritage and your people."[34]
The official motto for the 2008 Olympics was "One World, One Dream" (同一个世界 同一个梦想).[35] It called upon the whole world to join in the Olympic spirit and build a better future for humanity, and was chosen from over 210,000 entries submitted from around the world.[36] Following the announcement of the motto, the phrase was used by international advocates ofTibetan secession. Banners reading "One World, One Dream, Free Tibet" were unfurled from various structures around the globe in the lead up to the Beijing Olympics, such as from theSan FranciscoGolden Gate Bridge and theSydney Opera House in Australia.[37]
Themascots of Beijing 2008 were the fiveFuwa, each of which represented both a color of theOlympic rings and a symbol of Chinese culture. In 2006, theBeijing Organizing Committee for the Olympic Games releasedpictograms of 35 Olympic disciplines (however, for some multidiscipline sports such as cycling, a single pictogram was released).[38][39] This set of sport icons was namedthe beauty of seal characters, because of each pictogram's likeness to Chineseseal script.[39]
The mascots of the 2008 Summer Olympics were the Fuwa, created by Han Meilin (韩美林). The mascots consisted of Beibei, a fish, Jingjing, a panda, Huanhuan, an Olympic flame, Yingying, a Tibetan antelope, and Nini, a sand martin kite. When their Chinese characters are combined, they form北京欢迎你, or "Beijing Welcomes You". A year before the Games in 2007, the 100-episodeThe Olympic Adventures of Fuwa featuring the mascots, was released.
The 2008 Games were the first to be produced and broadcast entirely inhigh definition by the host broadcaster.[40] In comparison, American broadcasterNBC broadcast only half of the Turin2006 Winter Olympics in HD.[41][42] In their bid for the Olympic Games in 2001, Beijing stated to the Olympic Evaluation Commission that there would be "no restrictions on media reporting and movement of journalists up to and including the Olympic Games."[43] However, some media outlets claimed that organizers ultimately failed to live up to this commitment.[e]
According to Nielsen Media Research, 4.7 billion viewers worldwide tuned in to some of the television coverage, one-fifth larger than the 3.9 billion who watched the 2004 Olympic Games in Athens. American broadcaster NBC produced only two hours of online streaming video for the 2006 Winter Games but produced approximately 2,200 hours of coverage for the 2008 Summer Games.CNN reported that, for the first time, "live online video rights in some markets for the Olympics have been separately negotiated, not part of the overall 'broadcast rights.'" The new media of thedigital economy was said to be growing "nine times faster than the rest of the advertising market."[45]
The internationalEuropean Broadcasting Union (EBU) provided live coverage and highlights of all arenas only for certain territories on their website, Eurovisionsports.tv.[46] Many national broadcasters likewise restricted the viewing of online events to their domestic audiences.[47] The General National Copyright Administration of China announced that "individual (sic) and websites will face fines as high as 100,000yuan for uploading recordings of Olympic Games video to the internet",[48] part of an extensive campaign to protect the pertinent intellectual property rights.[49][50] The Olympic Committee also set up a separate YouTube channel at Beijing 2008.[51]
The theme song of the 2008 Summer Olympics was"You and Me", which was composed byChen Qigang, the musical director of the opening ceremony. It was performed during the opening ceremony by Chinese singerLiu Huan and British singerSarah Brightman.[52][53] The theme song was originally going to be a song called "So much love, so far away (Tanto amor, tan lejos)" written by Cuban singer-songwriterJon Secada and Peruvian singer-songwriterGian Marco under production from Cuban producerEmilio Estefan Jr. fromEMI.[54]
The design of the 2008Olympic Torch was based on traditional scrolls and used a traditional Chinese design known as the "Propitious Clouds" (祥云). The torch was designed to remain lit in 65 km/h (40 mph) winds, and in rain of up to 50 mm (2 in) per hour.[55]
The relay, with the theme "Journey of Harmony", was met with protests and demonstrations by pro-Tibet supporters throughout its journey. It lasted 130 days and carried the torch 137,000 km (85,000 mi)—the longest distance of any Olympic torch relay since the tradition began at the1936 Berlin Games.[56][57] The torch relay was described as a "public relations disaster" for China byUSA Today,[58] with protests against China's human rights record, particularly focused onTibet. The IOC subsequently barred future Olympics organizers from staging international torch relays.[59]
The relay began 24 March 2008, inOlympia, Greece. From there, it traveled across Greece toPanathinaiko Stadium in Athens, and then to Beijing, arriving on 31 March. From Beijing, the torch followed a route passing through every continent exceptAntarctica. The torch visited cities on theSilk Road, symbolizing ancient links between China and the rest of the world. A total of 21,880 torchbearers were selected from around the world by various organizations and entities.[60]
The international portion of the relay was problematic. The month-long world tour encountered wide-scale anti-Chinese protests. After trouble in London involving attempts by protesters to put out the flame, the torch was extinguished in Paris the following day.[61] The American leg in San Francisco on 9 April was altered without prior warning to avoid such disturbances, although there were still demonstrations along the original route.[62] The relay was further delayed and simplified after the2008 Sichuan earthquake hitwestern China.[63]
Route of the 2008 Olympic Torch Relay
The flame wascarried to the top of Mount Everest[60] on a 108 km (67 mi) long "highway" scaling the Tibetan side of the mountain, built especially for the relay. The $19.7 million blacktop project spanned fromTingri County ofXigazê Prefecture to theEverest Base Camp.[64] In March 2008, China banned mountaineers from climbing its side of Mount Everest, and later persuaded the Nepalese government to close their side as well, officially citing environmental concerns.[65] It also reflected concerns by the Chinese government that Tibet activists might try to disrupt its plans to carry the Olympic torch up the world's tallest peak.[66]
The originally proposed route would have taken the torch throughTaipei after leavingVietnam and before heading for Hong Kong. However, the government ofTaiwan (then led by theindependence-leaningDemocratic Progressive Party) objected to this proposal, claiming that this route would make the portion of the relay in Taiwan appear to be part of the torch's domestic journey through China, rather than a leg on the international route.[67] This dispute, as well as Chinese demands that theflag and thenational anthem of the Republic of China be banned along the route led the government of Taiwan to reject the proposal that it be part of the relay route. The two sides of the Taiwan Strait subsequently blamed each other for injecting politics into the event.[68]
The Marshall Islands and Tuvalu gained National Olympic Committee status in 2006 and 2007 respectively, and 2008 was the first Games in which they were eligible to participate.[71][72] The states ofSerbia andMontenegro, which participated at the 2004 Games jointly asSerbia and Montenegro, competed separately for the first time since Serbia last participated in1912. Montenegro made its debut appearance, as the Montenegrin Olympic Committee was accepted as a new National Olympic Committee in 2007.[72] NeighboringKosovo, however, did not participate. After the declaration of independence in Kosovo, the IOC specified requirements that Kosovo needs to meet before being recognized by the IOC; most notably, it has to be recognized as independent by theUnited Nations.[73][74][75] However, it has since been recognised by the IOC in 2014 without fulfilling these criteria and made its debut in the2016 games.[76]
More than 100 sovereigns, heads of state and heads of government as well as 170 Ministers of Sport attended the Beijing Olympic Games.[77]
Athletes from theRepublic of China (Taiwan) competed at the 2008 Games asChinese Taipei (TPE) under theChinese Taipei Olympic flag and used theNational Banner Song as their official anthem. The participation of Taiwan was briefly in doubt because of disagreements over the name of their team in the Chinese language and concerns about Taiwan marching in the Opening Ceremony next to the special administrative region of Hong Kong. A compromise based at theNagoya Protocol about the naming was reached some months before the opening ceremonies, and Taiwan was referred to during the Games as "Chinese Taipei", rather than "Taipei, China," as the mainland China government had proposed. In addition, theCentral African Republic was placed between Taipei andHong Kong,China on protocol order.[78]
Starting in 2005,North Korea and South Korea held meetings to discuss the possibility of sending a united team to the 2008 Olympics.[79][80] The proposal failed, because of disagreements about how athletes would be chosen; North Korea was demanding a certain percentage representation for its athletes. A subsequent attempt to broker an agreement for the two nations to walk together during the March of Nations failed as well, despite their having done so during the 2000 and 2004 Games.[81]
On 24 July 2008, theInternational Olympic Committee (IOC) bannedIraq from competing in the 2008 Olympic Summer Games because of "political interference by the government in sports."[82][83] The IOC reversed its decision five days later and allowed the nation to compete after a pledge by Iraq to ensure "the independence of its national Olympics panel" by instituting fair elections before the end of November. In the meantime, Iraq's Olympic Organization was to be run by "an interim committee proposed by its national sports federations and approved by the IOC."[84]
Brunei Darussalam was due to take part in the 2008 Summer Olympic Games. However, they were disqualified on 8 August, having failed to register either of their two athletes.[85] The IOC spokeswoman Emmanuelle Moreau said in a statement that "it is a great shame and very sad for the athletes who lose out because of the decision by their team not to register them. The IOC tried up until the last minute, midday Friday 8 August 2008, the day of the official opening, to have them register, but to no avail."[86] Brunei's Ministry of Culture, Youth and Sports issued a press release stating that their decision not to participate was due to an injury to one of their athletes.[87]
Georgia announced on 9 August 2008, that it was considering withdrawing from the Beijing Olympic Games because of the2008 South Ossetia war, but it went on to compete while the conflict was still ongoing.[88]
South African swimmerNatalie du Toit, whose left leg was amputated following a motor scooter accident, qualified to compete at the Beijing Olympics. The five time gold medalist at theAthens Paralympics in 2004 made history by becoming the firstamputee to qualify for the Olympic Games sinceOlivér Halassy in 1936. She was able to compete in the Olympics rather than the Paralympics because she does not use a prosthetic leg while swimming.[89] Polish athleteNatalia Partyka, who was born without a right forearm, competed in Table Tennis in the 2008 Summer Olympics and 2008 Paralympic Games.[90]
The program for the Beijing Games was quite similar to that of the 2004 Summer Olympics held in Athens. There were 28 sports and 302 events at the 2008 Games. Nine new events were held, including two from the newcycling discipline ofBMX. Women competed in the 3,000-meter (9,843 ft)steeplechase for the first time.Open water swimming events for men and women, over the distance of 10 kilometers (6.2 mi), were added to the swimming discipline. Team events (men and women) in table tennis replaced the doubles events.[91] Infencing, the women's team foil and women's team saber replaced men's team foil and women's teamépée.[f] Two sports were open only to men,baseball andboxing, while one sport and one discipline were open only to women,softball andsynchronized swimming.Equestrian andmixed badminton are the only sports in which men and women compete together, although three events in theSailing allowed the opportunity for both males and female participants. However, only male participants took part in all three events.[93][94]
The following were the 302 events in 28 sports that were contested at the Games. The number of events contested in each sport is indicated in parentheses (in sports with more than one discipline, as identified by the IOC,[95] these are also specified).
In addition to the official Olympic sports, the Beijing Organizing Committee was given special dispensation by the IOC to run awushu competition in tandem with the Games. The2008 Beijing Wushu Tournament saw 128 athletes from 43 countries participate, with medals awarded in 15 separate events; however, these were not to be added to the official medal tally since Wushu was not on the official program of the 2008 Summer Olympics.[96]
In the following calendar for the 2008 Summer Olympics, each blue box represents an event competition, such as a qualification round, on that day. The yellow boxes represent days during which medal-awarding finals for a sport were held. Each bullet in these boxes is an event final, the number of bullets per box representing the number of finals that were contested on that day. On the left, the calendar lists each sport with events held during the Games, and at the right how many gold medals were won in that sport. There is a key at the top of the calendar to aid the reader.[97]
Before the event started, thePeople's Liberation Army Navy Band performed theWelcome March song as delegations of both IOC and the Chinese government, led byJacques Rogge andHu Jintao, enteredBeijing National Stadium (TheBird's Nest).[99] The opening ceremony officially began at 8:00 pmChina Standard Time (UTC+8) on 8 August 2008. The number 8 is associated with prosperity and confidence inChinese culture, and the ceremonial start comprised a triple eight for the date and one extra for time (close to 08:08:08 pm).[100] The ceremony was co-directed by Chinese filmmakerZhang Yimou and Chinese choreographerZhang Jigang[101] and featured a cast of over 15,000 performers.[102] The ceremony lasted over four hours and was reported to have cost over US$100 million to produce.[103]UNGA PresidentMiguel d'Escoto and leaders from 105 countries and territories attended this ceremony.
Ilias Iliadis led the Greek team into the Bird's Nest as the traditional first contingent.Yao Ming and Lin Hao led the host country. China, as the host, enters last among 204 nations with a large vast of participants joining the parade.
A rich showcase of ancient Chinese art and culture dominated the ceremony cultural segments. It opened with the beating ofFou drums for the countdown. Subsequently, a giantscroll was unveiled and became the show's centerpiece. The official song of the 2008 Summer Olympics, titled "You and Me", was performed by Britain'sSarah Brightman and China'sLiu Huan, on a large spinning rendition of the globe.[104] As the Olympic Charter determines the parade of nations section, is led by theGreek team, which hosted theprevious games, entered first in honour of its status as the Olympic birthplace. They were led by judokaIlias Iliadis. Meanwhile, theChinese team entered last as the host country, led by theNBA'sHouston Rockets superstarYao Ming andearthquake survivor Lin Hao, who was just 9 years old. The last torchbearer in the Olympic Torch was thegymnast legendLi Ning ignited thecauldron, after being suspended into the air by wires and completing the relay last 400m of the National Stadium at roof height.[105]
The lighting of the Olympic Cauldron.Chinese gymnast Li Ning after igniting the cauldron.
The opening ceremony was lauded by spectators and various international presses as "spectacular" and "spellbinding".[8]Hein Verbruggen, chairman of the IOC Coordination Commission for the XXIX Olympiad, called the ceremony "a grand, unprecedented success."[106]
The 2008 Summer Olympics Closing Ceremony concluded the Beijing Games on 24 August 2008. It began at 8:00 pm China Standard Time (UTC+8) and took place at the Beijing National Stadium.
The reverse side of the medals of the 2008 Summer Olympics: silver (left), gold (center), bronze (right). Each medal has a ring ofjade.
Of the 204 nations that participated in the 2008 Games, 87 earned medals and 54 of those won at least one gold medal, both of these figures setting new records for Olympic Games.[108][109] There were 117 participating countries that did not win any medals. Athletes fromChina won the highest number of gold medals of any nation at these Games, with 48, thus making China the seventh nation to rank top in the medal table in the history of the modern Olympics, along with theUnited States (fifteen times),France (in 1900),Great Britain (in 1908),Germany (in 1936), theSoviet Union (six times), and theUnified Team (in 1992).[108]
American swimmerMichael Phelps won a total of eight gold medals, more than any other athlete in a single Olympic Games, setting numerous world and Olympic records in the process.[108] Jamaican sprinterUsain Bolt also set records in several different events, completing the 100m final with a time of 9.69 seconds, beating his own previous world record.[118] GymnastNastia Liukin won the all-around gold medal in artistic gymnastics, becoming the third American female to do so, following in the footsteps ofMary Lou Retton in1984 andCarly Patterson in2004.[119]
These are the top ten nations that won medals in the 2008 Games
The banner reads: "Human Rights Abuse Cannot Co-exist with Beijing Olympics", picture taken during the opening of theHuman Rights Torch Relay event
A variety of concerns over the Games, or China's hosting of the Games, had been expressed by various entities, including claims that China violated itspledge to allow open media access,[121] various claims of human rights violations,[122][123] its alleged continuous support of repressive regimes (such as Zimbabwe, Myanmar, Sudan, and North Korea), air pollution in both the city of Beijing and environs,[124] proposedboycotts,[125] warnings of the possibility that the Beijing Olympics could be targeted by terrorist groups,[126] disruption from Tibetan separatist protesters,[127] and religious persecutions.[128]
There were also claims that several members of China's women's gymnastics team, including double gold medal winnerHe Kexin, were too young to compete under theInternational Gymnastics Federation's rules for Olympic eligibility, but all were exonerated after an official IOC investigation.[129][130]
Collectively, the Beijing Olympics are associated with a variety of problematic topics: the ecological impact, residential displacement due to construction, treatment of migrant workers, the government's political stance on Tibet, etc.[131] In the lead-up to the Olympics, the government allegedly issued guidelines to the local media for their reporting during the Games: most political issues not directly related to the Olympics were to be downplayed; topics such as pro-Tibetan independence and East Turkestan movements were not to be reported on, as were food safety issues such as "cancer-causing mineral water".[132] As the2008 Chinese milk scandal broke in September 2008, there was widespread speculation that China's desire for a perfect Games may have been a factor contributing towards the delayed recall of contaminatedinfant formula.[133][134]
The 2008 Olympics were hit by a number of doping scandals before and after the Games had commenced. Since seven Russian track and field stars were suspended just before the start of the Games for allegedly tampering with their urine samples, only five of the seven who were due to take part could participate. Eleven Greek weightlifters also failed tests in the run up to the Games and the entire Bulgarian weightlifting team had to withdraw after eleven of their weightlifters also failed tests. A small number of athletes from other nations also failed pre-Games tests.[135][136][137]
The 2008 Summer Olympics have been generally accepted by the world's media as alogistical success.[138] Many of the worst fears about the Games failed to materialize: no terrorists struck Beijing; no athlete protested at the podium (though Swedish wrestlerAra Abrahamian tossed his bronze medal in disgust over judging); and the air quality, despite being the worst in Olympics history, was not as bad as many had feared beforehand – due largely to favorable weather patterns.[139][140]
Many in China viewed the Olympics as "an affirmation of a singlenationalistic dream" and saw protests during the international torch relay as an insult to China.[141] The Games also bolstered domestic support for the Chinese government, and for the policies of theCommunist Party, giving rise to concerns that the Olympics would give the state more leverage to suppress politicaldissent, at least temporarily.[142] Efforts to quell any unrest before and during the Games also contributed to a rapid expansion in the size and political clout of China'sinternal security forces, and this growth continued through the following years.[143] Reports also indicated that the Olympics boosted the political careers of pro-Beijing politicians in Hong Kong, as many Chinese gold medal winners campaigned on behalf of the pro-BeijingDAB during the2008 election,[144] although any trend towards greater identification byHong Kongers with mainland China appears to have been short-lived.[145]
Some sectors of the Beijing economy may have benefited from the influx of tourists. Other sectors such as manufacturing lost revenue because of plant closings related to the government's efforts to improve air quality. Four years after the Games, many of the specially constructed facilities were underused or even deserted.[146] It is generally expected by economists that there will be no lasting effects on Beijing's economy from the Games.[147]
^The official logo for the 2008 Summer Olympics, featuring a depiction of the Chinese pictogram "京", from the wordBeijing (北京) representing a dancing human figure, in reference to the host city. Below are the words "Beijing 2008" located above the Olympic rings.
^The New York Times, for instance, said that "those promises have been contradicted by strict visa rules, lengthy application processes and worries about censorship."[44]
^The fencing program included six individual events and four team events; theFIE's rules call for the set of team events to be different from those held in the previous Games and for at least one team event in each weapon to be contested. The fourth event is determined by a vote. In2004, the three men's team events (foil,saber,épée) and the women's épée were held, so in 2008, both the women's foil and saber events, as well as the men's épée, were automatically selected. The fourth event, men's saber, was chosen over men's foil by a 45:20 vote.[92]
^Figures in table reflect all official changes in medal standings.
^Flyvbjerg, Bent; Stewart, Allison; Budzier, Alexander (2016).The Oxford Olympics Study 2016: Cost and Cost Overrun at the Games. Oxford: Saïd Business School Working Papers (Oxford: University of Oxford). pp. 18–20.arXiv:1607.04484.doi:10.2139/ssrn.2804554.ISSN1556-5068.SSRN2804554.
^Crean, Jeffrey (2024).The Fear of Chinese Power: an International History. New Approaches to International History series. London, UK:Bloomsbury Academic. p. 165.ISBN978-1-350-23394-2.
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