Swiss Confederacy | |
|---|---|
| 1291–1798 | |
.svg) | |
| Capital | None[4] |
| Official languages | German[5] |
| Common languages | [citation needed] |
| Religion | Roman Catholic Continental Reformed |
| Demonym(s) | Swiss |
| Government | Confederation |
| Legislature | Tagsatzung |
| History | |
• Death ofRudolf I | 15 July 1291 |
| 1 August 1291 | |
| 1356 | |
| 13–14 September 1515 | |
| 1529 and 1531 | |
• Formal independence from theHRE | 15 May/24 October 1648 |
| January–June 1653 | |
• Collapse | 5 March 1798 |
| Currency | About 75 different local currencies, includingBasel thaler,Berne thaler,Fribourg gulden,Geneva thaler,Geneva genevoise,Luzern gulden,Neuchâtel gulden,St. Gallen thaler,Schwyz gulden,Solothurn thaler,Valais thaler,Zürich thaler |
| Today part of | Switzerland |
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| Old Swiss Confederacy |
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TheOld Swiss Confederacy, also known asSwitzerland or theSwiss Confederacy,[6] was a looseconfederation of independent small states (cantons, GermanOrte orStände[7]), initially within theHoly Roman Empire. It is the precursor of the modern state ofSwitzerland.
It formed at the end of the 13th century, froma nucleus in what is nowCentral Switzerland,expanding to include the cities ofZurich andBern by the middle of the 14th century. This formed a rare union of rural and urbancommunes, all of which enjoyedimperial immediacy in the Holy Roman Empire.
This confederation of eight cantons (Acht Orte) was politically and militarily successful for more than a century, culminating in theBurgundy Wars of the 1470s which established it as a power in the complicated political landscape dominated byFrance and theHabsburgs. Its success resulted in the addition of more confederates, increasing the number of cantons to thirteen (Dreizehn Orte) by 1513. The confederacy pledgedneutrality in 1647 (under the threat of theThirty Years' War), although many Swiss served privately asmercenaries in theItalian Wars and during theearly modern period.
After theSwabian War of 1499 the confederacy was ade facto independent state throughout theearly modern period, although still nominally part of the Holy Roman Empire until 1648 when theTreaty of Westphalia ended theThirty Years' War. The Swiss Reformation divided the confederates into Reformed and Catholic parties, resulting in internal conflict from the 16th to the 18th centuries; as a result, the federal diet (Tagsatzung) was often paralysed by hostility between the factions. The Swiss Confederacy fell to aFrench invasion in 1798, after which it became the short-livedHelvetic Republic.
The adjective "old" was introduced after theNapoleonic era withAncien Régime,retronyms distinguishing the pre-Napoleonic from therestored confederation. During its existence the confederacy was known asEidgenossenschaft orEydtgnoschafft ("oath fellowship"), in reference to treaties among cantons; this term was first used in the 1370Pfaffenbrief. Territories of the confederacy came to be known collectively asSchweiz orSchweizerland (Schwytzerland in contemporary spelling), with the EnglishSwitzerland beginning during the mid-16th century. From that time the Confederacy was seen as a single state, also known as the Swiss Republic (Republic der Schweitzer,République des Suisses andRepublica Helvetiorum byJosias Simmler in 1576) after the fashion of calling individual urban cantonsrepublics (such as the Republics ofZürich,Berne andBasel).[citation needed]
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The nucleus of the Old Swiss Confederacy was an alliance among the valley communities of thecentral Alps to facilitate management of common interests (such as trade) and ensure peace along trade routes through the mountains. Previously, the communities, also known collectively as the "Forest States",[8] had been grantedimperial immediacy and autonomy during the reign of theHohenstaufens. The region was endowed with these privileges because theGotthard Pass went through the area. This pass was important in the Hohenstaufen struggle against the ItalianLombard League.
Due to the fragmentation ofSwabia following the collapse of the Hohenstaufens, many nations began to compete for land. TheHabsburgs in particular were a major threat to the Swiss states.King Rudolf I added large amounts of territory in Switzerland and Swabia to hisdomain, andsieged down Bern in 1289 to enforce imperial taxes. This aggression from the Habsburgs would likely be a major factor in the creation of the Swiss Confederacy.[9]
The foundation of the Confederacy is marked by theRütlischwur (dated to 1307 byAegidius Tschudi) or the 1315Pact of Brunnen. Since 1889, theFederal Charter of 1291 among therural communes ofUri,Schwyz, andUnterwalden has been considered the founding document of the confederacy.[10]
The early Swiss Confederacy was simply a defensive pact, but over time the states grew closer and closer. Following a victory against the Habsburgs in 1315, the members of the Confederacy vowed not to form alliances with outside states without consent of the rest of the Confederacy. They also agreed to resolve all disputes peacefully and to support one another in both external and internal affairs. At this point however, the Swiss were still subordinate to the Empire, and they acknowledged the authority of the Holy Roman Empire.[8]
The initial pact was augmented by pacts with the cities ofLucerne,Zurich, andBern. This union of rural and urban communes, which enjoyed the status ofimperial immediacy within theHoly Roman Empire, was engendered by pressure fromHabsburg dukes and kings who had ruled much of the land. Bern in particular had fought against local nobles, including the Habsburgs, on several occasions, and as such was eager to join the Confederacy. In several battles with Habsburg armies, the Swiss were victorious; they conquered the rural areas ofGlarus andZug, which became members of the confederacy.[10] This expansion greatly changed the social climate in the Confederacy. In the original 3cantons, citizens all held equal rights, but in the newly acquired urban cities, power was in the hands of the wealthyBurgomeisters. This led into a shift away from the traditional Swiss egalitarianism enjoyed by citizens in the original Confederacy.[8]
From 1353 to 1481, the federation of eight cantons—known in German as theAcht Orte (Eight Cantons)—consolidated its position. The members (especially the cities) enlarged their territory at the expense of local counts—primarily by buyingjudicial rights, but sometimes by force. TheEidgenossenschaft, as a whole, expanded through military conquest: theAargau was conquered in 1415 and theThurgau in 1460. In both cases, the Swiss profited from weakness in the Habsburg dukes. In the south, Uri led a military territorial expansion that (after many setbacks) would by 1515 lead to the conquest of theTicino.None of these territories became members of the confederacy; they had the status ofcondominiums (regions administered by several cantons).[8]
The reason for these Swiss victories was their innovative military tactics. Their perfection of thePike Square made them excellent defensive warriors in their home mountain terrain, and they became highly sought aftermercenaries throughout Europe (exSwiss Guard).
At this time, the eight cantons gradually increased their influence on neighbouring cities and regions through additional alliances. Individual cantons concluded pacts withFribourg,Appenzell,Schaffhausen, the abbot and the city ofSt. Gallen,Biel,Rottweil, Mulhouse and others. These allies (known as theZugewandte Orte) became closely associated with the confederacy, but were not accepted as full members. They would be known asSwiss Associates.
TheBurgundian Wars prompted a further enlargement of the confederacy; Fribourg andSolothurn were accepted in 1481. By defeating theDuchy of Burgundy in this war, the Confederacy managed to stop the growing Burgundian threat. In theSwabian War against Holy Roman EmperorMaximilian I, the Swiss were victorious and exempted from imperial legislation. The associated cities ofBasel andSchaffhausen joined the confederacy as a result of that conflict, and Appenzell followed suit in 1513 as the thirteenth member. The federation of thirteen cantons (Dreizehn Orte) constituted the Old Swiss Confederacy until its demise in 1798.
The expansion of the confederacy was stopped by the Swiss defeat in the 1515Battle of Marignano. Only Bern and Fribourg were still able to conquer theVaud in 1536; the latter primarily became part of thecanton of Bern, with a small portion under the jurisdiction of Fribourg.
TheReformation in Switzerland led to doctrinal division amongst the cantons.[10] Zürich, Bern, Basel, Schaffhausen and associates Biel, Mulhouse, Neuchâtel, Geneva and the city of St. Gallen becameProtestant; other members of the confederation and theValais remainedCatholic. In Glarus, Appenzell, in theGrisons and in most condominiums both religions coexisted; Appenzell split in 1597 into a CatholicAppenzell Innerrhoden and a ProtestantAppenzell Ausserrhoden.
The division led to civil war (theWars of Kappel) and separate alliances with foreign powers by the Catholic and Protestant factions, but the confederacy as a whole continued to exist. A common foreign policy was blocked, however, by the impasse. During theThirty Years' War, religious disagreements among the cantons kept the confederacy neutral and spared it from belligerents. At thePeace of Westphalia, the Swiss delegation was granted formal recognition of the confederacy as a state independent of the Holy Roman Empire.
Growing social differences and an increasingabsolutism in the city cantons during the Ancien Régime led to localpopular revolts. An uprising during the post-war depression after the Thirty Years' War escalated to theSwiss peasant war of 1653 in Lucerne, Bern, Basel, Solothurn and the Aargau. The revolt was put down swiftly by force and with the help of many cantons.
Religious differences were accentuated by a growing economic discrepancy. The Catholic, predominantly rural central-Swiss cantons were surrounded by Protestant cantons with increasingly commercial economies. The politically dominant cantons were Zürich and Bern (both Protestant), but the Catholic cantons were influential since the Second War of Kappel in 1531. A 1655 attempt (led by Zürich) to restructure the federation was blocked by Catholic opposition, which led to thefirst battle of Villmergen in 1656; the Catholic party won, cementing thestatus quo.
The problems remained unsolved, erupting again in 1712 with thesecond battle of Villmergen. This time the Protestant cantons won, dominating the confederation. True reform, however, was impossible; the individual interests of the thirteen members were too diverse, and the absolutist cantonal governments resisted all attempts at confederation-wide administration. Foreign policy remained fragmented.
The(Alte) Eidgenossenschaft was initially united not by a single pact, but by overlapping pacts and bilateral treaties between members.[11] The parties generally agreed to preserve the peace, aid in military endeavours and arbitrate disputes. Slowly, the members began to see the confederation as a unifying entity. In thePfaffenbrief, a treaty of 1370 among six of the eight members (Glarus and Bern did not participate) forbiddingfeuds and denying clerical courts jurisdiction over the confederacy, the cantons for the first time used the termEidgenossenschaft. The first treaty uniting the eight members of the confederacy was theSempacherbrief [de;fr] of 1393, concluded after victories over the Habsburgs atSempach in 1386 andNäfels in 1388, which forbade a member from unilaterally beginning a war without the consent of the other cantons. A federaldiet, theTagsatzung, developed during the 15th century.[8]
Pacts and renewals (or modernizations) of earlier alliances reinforced the confederacy. The individual interests of the cantons clashed in theOld Zürich War (1436–1450), caused by territorial conflict among Zürich and the central Swiss cantons over the succession of theCount of Toggenburg. Although Zürich entered an alliance with the Habsburg dukes, it then rejoined the confederacy. The confederation had become so close a political alliance that it no longer tolerated separatist tendencies in its members.[8]
TheTagsatzung was the confederation council, typically meeting several times a year. Each canton delegated two representatives (including the associate states, which had no vote). The canton where the delegates met initially chaired the gathering, but during the 16th century Zürich permanently assumed the chair (Vorort) andBaden became the seat. TheTagsatzung dealt with inter-cantonal affairs and was the court of last resort in disputes between member states, imposing sanctions on dissenting members. It also administered the condominiums; thereeves were delegated for two years, each time by a different canton.[12]
A unifying treaty of the Old Swiss Confederacy was theStanser Verkommnis of 1481. Conflicts between rural and urban cantons and disagreements over the bounty of theBurgundian Wars had led to skirmishes. The urban cantons of Bern, Zurich, and Luzern in particular wanted to keep a large share of the bounty. The city-states of Fribourg and Solothurn wanted to join the confederacy, but were mistrusted by the central Swiss rural cantons. The compromise by theTagsatzung in theStanser Verkommnis restored order and assuaged the rural cantons' complaints, with Fribourg and Solothurn accepted into the confederation.[8] While the treaty restricted freedom of assembly (many skirmishes arose from unauthorised expeditions by soldiers from the Burgundian Wars), it reinforced agreements amongst the cantons in the earlierSempacherbrief andPfaffenbrief.
The civil war during the Reformation ended in a stalemate. The Catholic cantons could block council decisions but, due to geographic and economic factors, could not prevail over the Protestant cantons. Both factions began to hold separate councils, still meeting at a commonTagsatzung (although the common council was deadlocked by disagreements between both factions until 1712, when the Protestant cantons gained power after their victory in thesecond war of Villmergen). The Catholic cantons were excluded from administering the condominiums in the Aargau, the Thurgau and the Rhine valley; in their place, Bern became co-sovereign of these regions.
The confederation expanded in several stages: first to the Eight Cantons (Acht Orte), then in 1481 to ten, in 1501 to twelve, and finally to thirteen cantons (Dreizehn Orte).[13]
Uri, founding canton named in theFederal Charter of 1291
Schwyz, founding canton named in the Federal Charter of 1291
Unterwalden, founding canton named in the Federal Charter of 1291, later split into
Obwalden and
Nidwalden
Basel, city canton, since 1501
Schaffhausen, city canton, since 1501; associate since 1454
Appenzell, rural canton, since 1513; associate since 1411; later split intoAppenzell Innerrhoden and
Appenzell Ausserrhoden
Associates(Zugewandte Orte) were close allies of the Old Swiss Confederacy, connected to the union by alliance treaties with all or some of the individual members of the confederacy.
Three of the associates were known asEngere Zugewandte:
Biel – 1344–82 treaties with Fribourg, Bern and Solothurn. Nominally, Biel was subject to theBishopric of Basel.
ImperialAbbey of St. Gallen – 1451 treaty with Schwyz, Lucerne, Zürich and Glarus, renewed in 1479 and 1490. The abbey was simultaneously a protectorate.
Imperial City ofSt. Gallen – 1454 treaty with Schwyz, Lucerne, Zürich, Glarus, Zug and Bern.Two federations were known asEwige Mitverbündete:
Sieben Zenden, an independent federation in theValais – Became aZugewandter Ort in 1416 through an alliance with Uri, Unterwalden and Lucerne, followed by a treaty with Bern in 1446.
Grey League, who had been allied with Glarus, Uri and Obwalden through pacts from 1400, 1407 and 1419, entered an alliance with seven of the old eight cantons (theAcht Orte without Bern) in 1497
League of God's House (Gotteshausbund) followed suit a year later.
League of the Ten Jurisdictions, the third of the leagues, entered an alliance with Zürich and Glarus in 1590.There were twoEvangelische Zugewandte:
Republic of Mulhouse – Concluded a first treaty with some cantons in 1466 and became an associate in 1515 through a treaty with all 13 members of the Confederacy, remaining so until events of theFrench Revolutionary Wars in 1798.
Republic of Geneva – 1536 treaty with Bern and a 1584 treaty with Zürich and Bern, remaining so until events of theFrench Revolutionary Wars in 1798.
County of Neuchâtel – 1406 and 1526 treaties with Bern and Solothurn, 1495 treaty with Fribourg and 1501 treaty with Lucerne.
Imperial Valley ofUrseren – 1317 treaty with Uri; annexed by Uri in 1410.
Weggis – 1332–1380 by treaties with Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden and Lucerne; annexed by Lucerne in 1480.
Murten – from 1353 by treaty with Bern; became a confederal condominium in 1475.
Payerne – from 1353 by treaty with Bern; annexed by Bern in 1536.
County of Sargans – from 1437 by treaty with Glarus and Schwyz; became a confederal condominium in 1483.
Barony of Sax-Forstegg – from 1458 by treaty with Zürich; annexed by Zürich in 1615
Stein am Rhein – from 1459 by treaty with Zürich and Schaffhausen; annexed by Zürich in 1484.
County of Gruyère – had been allied with Fribourg and Berne since the early 14th century, becoming a full associate of the Confederation in 1548. When the counts fell bankrupt in 1555, the country was partitioned in twain:[14]
Imperial Valley ofSaanen
Imperial Valley ofChâteau-d'Œx
County of Werdenberg – from 1493 by treaty with Lucerne; annexed by Glarus in 1517.
Imperial City ofRottweil – from 1519 to 1632 through a treaty with all 13 members; a first treaty on military cooperation had already been concluded in 1463. In 1632, the treaty was renewed with Lucerne, Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Zug, Solothurn and Fribourg.
Bishopric of Basel – 1579–1735 by treaty with Lucerne, Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Zug, Solothurn and Fribourg.Condominiums (German:Gemeine Herrschaften) were common subject territories under the administration of several cantons. They were governed byreeves (Vögte) delegated for two years, each time from another of the responsible cantons. Bern initially did not participate in the administration of some of the eastern condominiums, as it had no part in their conquest and its interests were focused more on the western border. In 1712, Bern replaced the Catholic cantons in the administration of theFreie Ämter ("Free Districts"), theThurgau, the Rhine valley, andSargans, and furthermore the Catholic cantons were excluded from the administration of theCounty of Baden.[11]
The "German bailiwicks" (German:Deutsche Gemeine Vogteien, Gemeine Herrschaften) were generally governed by theAcht Orte apart from Bern until 1712, when Bern joined the sovereign powers:
Freie Ämter – conquered 1415 and partitioned in 1712:
County of Baden – conquered 1415; from 1712 governed by Zürich, Bern and Glarus.County of Sargans – from 1460/83
Landgraviate of Thurgau – from 1460
Vogtei of Rheintal – from 1490,Acht Orte minus Bern, plus theImperial Abbey of St Gall. Appenzell added in 1500; Bern added in 1712.Severalbailiwicks (Vogteien) were generally referred to as "transmontane bailiwicks" (German:Ennetbergische Vogteien,Italian:Baliaggi Ultramontani). In 1440,Uri conquered theLeventina Valley from theVisconti,dukes of Milan. Some of this territory had previously been annexed between 1403 and 1422. Further territories were acquired in 1500;seeHistory of Ticino for further details.
Three bailiwicks, all now in theTicino, were condominiums of the Forest cantons of Uri, Schwyz and Nidwalden:
Four other Ticinese bailiwicks were condominiums of theZwölf Orte (the original 13 cantons, minus Appenzell) from 1512:
Another three bailiwicks were condominiums of theZwölf Orte from 1512, but were lost from the Confederacy three years later and are all nowcomuni ofLombardy orPiedmont:
County of Grasburg /Schwarzenburg – from 1423Murten – from 1475
Grandson – from 1475
Orbe andEchallens – from 1475
Uznach – from 1437
Windegg / Gaster – from 1438
Hohensax /Gams – from 1497
Bellelay Abbey – protectorate of Bern, Biel and Solothurn from 1414; nominally under the jurisdiction of theBishopric of Basel
Einsiedeln Abbey – protectorate of Schwyz from 1357
Engelberg Abbey – protectorate of Lucerne, Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden from 1425
Erguel – protectorate ofBiel/Bienne under military jurisdiction from 1335; also subject to the Bishopric of BaselImperialAbbey of St. Gallen – protectorate of Schwyz, Lucerne, Zürich and Glarus from 1451; the abbey was simultaneously aZugewandter Ort.
Republic of Gersau, an independent village – allied with Schwyz since 1332; Lucerne, Uri and Unterwalden were also protecting powers.
Moutier-Grandval Abbey – protectorate of Bern from 1486; the abbey was also subject to the Bishopric of Basel and, until 1797, theHoly Roman Empire
La Neuveville – protectorate of Bern from 1388; also subject to the Bishopric of Basel.
Pfäfers Abbey – protectorate of theAcht Orte minus Bern from 1460; annexed to theCounty of Sargans in 1483
Rapperswil – protectorate of Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden and Glarus from 1464; of Zürich, Bern and Glarus from 1712
County of Toggenburg – protectorate of Schwyz and Glarus from 1436; of Zürich and Bern from 1718. The county was simultaneously subject to St Gallen Abbey.Some territories were separate subjects of cantons or associates,Einzelörtische Untertanen von Länderorten und Zugewandten:
Küssnacht (1402)
Einsiedeln Abbey (1397 / 1424)
March (1405 / 36)
Höfe (1440)County of Werdenberg (1485 / 1517); annexed to Lucerne in 1485; to Glarus in 1517
St-Maurice (1475 / 77)
Monthey (1536)
Nendaz-Hérémence (1475 / 77)
Port Valais/Vionnaz
Maienfeld (Bündner Herrschaft) (1509–1790); simultaneously a member of theLeague of the Ten Jurisdictions.
Media related toAlte Eidgenossenschaft (Old Swiss Confederacy) at Wikimedia Commons
