Anofficial language is alanguage having certain rights to be used in defined situations. These rights can be created in written form or by historic usage.[1][2]
178 countries recognize an official language, 101 of them recognizing more than one. The government of Italy madeItalian their official language in 1999,[3] and some nations (such as Mexico and Australia) have never declaredde jure official languages at the national level.[4] Other nations have declared non-indigenous official languages.
Many of the world's constitutions mention one or more official ornational languages.[5][6] Some countries use the official language designation to empower indigenous groups by giving them access to the government in their native languages. In countries that do not formally designate an official language, ade facto national language usually evolves.English is the most common official or co-official language, with recognized status in 52 countries.Arabic,French, andSpanish are official or co-official languages in several countries.
An official language that is also anindigenous language is calledendoglossic, one that is not indigenous isexoglossic.[7] An instance is Nigeria, which has three endoglossicofficial languages. By this, the country aims to protect the indigenous languages although at the same time recognising the English language as its lingua franca. In spatial terms,indigenous (endoglossic) languages are mostly employed in the function of official languages inEurasia, while mainly non-indigenous (exoglossic) rest of the world.[8]
Around 500 BC, whenDarius the Great annexedMesopotamia to theAchaemenid Empire, he chose a form of theAramaic language (the so-calledOfficial Aramaic or Imperial Aramaic) as the vehicle for written communication between the different regions of the vast empire with its different peoples and languages.[9]Aramaic script was widely employed fromEgypt in the southwest toBactria andSogdiana in the northeast. Texts were dictated in the native dialects and written down in Aramaic, and then read out again in the native language at the places they were received.[10]
Qin Shi Huang, the firstemperor of China, standardized the written language of China after unifying the country in 221 BC.[11]Literary Chinese would remain the standard written language for the next 2000 years. Standardization of the spoken language received less political attention, andMandarin developed on an ad hoc basis from the dialects of the various imperial capitals until being officially standardized in the early twentieth century.
The following languages are official (de jure orde facto) in three or more sovereign states. In some cases, a language may be defined as different languages in different countries. Examples are Hindi and Urdu, Malay and Indonesian, Serbian and Croatian, Persian and Tajik.
Some countries—likeAustralia, theUnited Kingdom, and the United States,—have no official language recognized as such at a national level. On the other extreme,Bolivia officially recognizes 37 languages, the most of any country in the world. Second to Bolivia isIndia with22 official languages.South Africa is the country with the third lead with 12 official languages that all have equal status;[12][13] Bolivia gives primacy toSpanish, and India gives primacy toEnglish andHindi .[14]
The selection of an official language (or the lack thereof) is often contentious.[15] An alternative to having a single official language is "officialmultilingualism", where a government recognizes multiple official languages. Under this system, all government services are available in all official languages. Eachcitizen may choose their preferred language when conducting business. Most countries are multilingual[16] and many are officially multilingual.Taiwan,Canada, thePhilippines,Belgium,Switzerland, and theEuropean Union are examples of official multilingualism. This has been described as controversial and, in some other areas where it has been proposed, the idea has been rejected.[15] It has also been described as necessary for the recognition of different groups[17] or as an advantage for the country in presenting itself to outsiders.[18]
Ethiopia has five official languages (Amharic alone until 2020)Amharic,Oromo,Somali,Tigrinya, andAfar, but Amharic is the de facto sole official language which is used by the government for issuing driving licenses, business licenses, passport, and foreign diplomacy with the addition that Court documents are in Amharic, and the constitution is written in Amharic, making Amharic a higher official language in the country.[25]
According to the Finnish constitution,Finnish andSwedish are thenational languages of the republic, giving their speakers the right to communicate with, and receive official documents from, government authorities in either of the two languages in any part of the country – making those languages de factoofficial.[26] Speakers ofSámi languages have those same rights in their native area (Sámi homeland).[27]
According to theBasic Law of Hong Kong and theOfficial Languages Ordinance, bothChinese andEnglish are the official languages ofHong Kong with equal status. The variety of Chinese is not stipulated; however,Cantonese, being the language most commonly used by the majority ofHongkongers, forms thede facto standard. Similarly,Traditional Chinese characters are most commonly used in Hong Kong and form thede facto standard for written Chinese, however, there is an increasing presence ofSimplified Chinese characters particularly in areas related to tourism.[28] In government use, documents written using TraditionalChinese characters are authoritative over ones written with Simplified Chinese characters.[29]
TheConstitution of India (part 17) designates the official language of the Government of India asHindi written in the Devanagari script.[30] Although the original intentions of the constitution were to phase out English as an official language, provisions were provided so that "Parliament may by law provide for the use ... of ... the English language".
The official language of Indonesia is theIndonesian language (Bahasa Indonesia). Bahasa Indonesia is regulated in Chapter XV, 1945 Constitution of Indonesia.
On 19 July 2018, theKnesset passed abasic law under the titleIsrael as the Nation-State of the Jewish People, which definesHebrew as "the State's language" and Arabic as a language with "a special status in the State" (article 4). The law further says that it should not be interpreted as compromising the status of theArabic language in practice before the enactment of the basic law, namely, it preserves the status quo and changes the status of Hebrew and Arabic only nominally.[32]
"All Ordinances, official notices and official forms of the Government and all official notices of local authorities and municipalities in areas to be prescribed by order of the High Commissioner, shall be published in English, Arabic, and Hebrew."
This law, like most other laws of the British Mandate, was adopted in the State of Israel, subject to certain amendments published by the provisional legislative branch on 19 May 1948. The amendment states that:
"Any provision in the law requiring the use of the English language is repealed."[34]
In mostpublic schools, the main teaching language is Hebrew, English is taught as a second language, and most students learn a third language, usually Arabic but not necessarily. Other public schools have Arabic as their main teaching language, and they teach Hebrew as a second language and English as a third one. There are also bilingual schools which aim to teach both Hebrew and Arabic equally.
Some languages other than Hebrew and Arabic, such as English, Russian,Amharic,Yiddish andLadino enjoy a somewhat special status but are not official languages. For instance, at least 5% of the broadcasting time of privately owned TV channels must be translated into Russian (a similar privilege is granted to Arabic), warnings must be translated to several languages, and signs are mostly trilingual (Hebrew, Arabic and English), and the government supports Yiddish and Ladino culture (alongside Hebrew culture and Arabic culture).
The Official Language Law recognizesLatvian as the sole official language of Latvia, whileLatgalian is protected as "a historic variant of Latvian" andLivonian is recognized as "the language of the indigenous (autochthonous) population".[35] Latvia also provides national minority education programmes inRussian,Polish,Hebrew,Ukrainian,Estonian,Lithuanian, andBelarusian.[36] In 2012 there was aconstitutional referendum on elevatingRussian as a co-official language, but the proposal was rejected by nearly three-quarters of the voters.[37]
The official language of Malaysia is theMalay (Bahasa Melayu), also known as Bahasa Malaysia or just Bahasa for short. Bahasa Melayu is being protected under Article 152 of the Constitution of Malaysia.
Dutch is the official language of theNetherlands (a constituent country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands). In the province ofFriesland,Frisian is the official second language. While Dutch is therefore the official language of theCaribbean Netherlands (the islandsBonaire,Saba andSint Eustatius), it is not any of the three islands' main spoken language:Papiamento is the most often spoken language on Bonaire, whileEnglish is on both Saba and Sint Eustatius. These languages can be used in official documents (but do not have the same status as Frisian).Low Saxon andLimburgish, languages acknowledged by theEuropean Charter, are spoken in specific regions of the Netherlands.[38]
The official language of Nigeria is English, which was chosen to facilitate the cultural and linguistic unity of the country.British colonial rule ended in 1960.
Russian is the official language of theRussian Federation and in allfederal subjects, however many minority languages have official status in the areas where they are indigenous. One type of federal subject in Russia,republics, are allowed to adopt additional official languages alongside Russian in their constitutions. Republics are often based around particular native ethnic groups and are often areas where ethnicRussians and native Russian-language speakers are a minority.
South Africa has twelve official languages[12] that are mostly indigenous. Due to limited funding, however, the government rarely produces documents in most languages. Accusations of mismanagement andcorruption have been leveled[45] against thePan South African Language Board, established to promote multilingualism, develop the 11 official languages, and protect language rights in the country.[14] In practice, government is conducted in English.
The four national languages ofSwitzerland areGerman,French,Italian andRomansh. At the federal level German, French and Italian are official languages, the official languages of individual cantons depend on the languages spoken in them.
Mandarin is the most common language used in government. AfterWorld War II the mainland Chinese-run government made Mandarin the official language, and it was used in the schools and government. Under the Development of National Languages Act, political participation can be conducted in any national language, which is defined as a "natural language used by an original people group of Taiwan",[46] which also includesFormosan languages, theTaiwanese variety of Hokkien andHakka. According to Taiwan's Legislative Yuan, amendments were made to the Hakka Basic Act to makeHakka an official language ofTaiwan.[47]
The de facto official language of the United Kingdom isEnglish.[49] InWales, theWelsh language, spoken by approximately 20% of the population, hasde jure official status, alongside English.[50][51]
Map of US official language status by state before 2016. Blue: English declared the official language; light-blue: English declared a co-official language; gray: no official language specified.
TheEnglish language is the predominant language ofthe United States. AnExecutive Order issued in March 2025 purported to designate English as the nation’s official language.[52][53] Most states have designated English as their official language. 32 of the 50U.S. states[54] and all five inhabitedU.S. territories have designated English as one, or the only, official language, while courts have found that residents in the 50 states do not have a right to government services in their preferred language.[55] Public debate in the last few decades has focused on whetherSpanish should be recognized by the government, or whether all business should be done in English.[15]
California allows people to take theirdriving test in the following 32 languages: Amharic, Arabic, Armenian, Chinese, Croatian, English, French, German, Greek, Hebrew, Hindi, Hmong, Hungarian, Indonesian, Italian,Japanese, Khmer, Korean, Laotian,Persian, Polish, Portuguese, Punjabi, Romanian, Russian, Samoan, Spanish, Tagalog/Filipino, Thai, Tongan, Turkish, and Vietnamese.[56]
Opponents of the official language policy in the United States argue that it would hamper "the government's ability to reach out, communicate, and warn people in the event of a natural or man-made disaster such as a hurricane, pandemic, or...another terrorist attack".[55] Professor of politics Alan Patten argues that disengagement (officially ignoring the issue) works well in religious issues but that it is not possible with language issues because it must offer public services in some language. Even if it makes a conscious effort not to establish an official language, ade facto official language, or the "national language", will nevertheless emerge.[15][58]
Sometimes an official language definition can be motivated more by national identity than by linguistic concerns. Prior to thebreakup in early 1990s, althoughSFR Yugoslavia had no official language on the federal level, its six constituent republics including two autonomous provinces accounted for four official languages—Serbo-Croatian,Slovene,Macedonian andAlbanian. Serbo-Croatian served as thelingua franca for mutual understanding and was also the language ofthe military, as official in four republics and taught as asecond language in the other two.
WhenCroatia declared independence in 1991, it defined its official language asCroatian, while the confederate union ofSerbia and Montenegro likewise defined its official language asSerbian in 1992.Bosnia and Herzegovina defined three official languages:Bosnian, Croatian, and Serbian. From the linguistic point of view, the different names refer to national varieties of the same language, which is known under the appellation of Serbo-Croatian.[59][60][61] The language used inMontenegro became standardized as theMontenegrin language upon Montenegro's declaration of independence fromSerbia and Montenegro in 2006.
^"Official Language",Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language, Ed. Tom McArthur, Oxford University Press, 1998.
^Pueblo v. Tribunal Superior, 92 D.P.R. 596 (1965). Translation taken from the English text, 92 P. R. R. 580 (1965), p. 588–589. See also LOPEZ-BARALT NEGRON, "Pueblo v. Tribunal Superior: Español: Idioma del proceso judicial", 36 Revista Juridica de la Universidad de Puerto Rico. 396 (1967), and VIENTOS-GASTON, "Informe del Procurador General sobre el idioma", 36 Rev. Col. Ab. (P.R.) 843 (1975).
^Shahbazi, Shapur (1994),"Darius I the Great",Encyclopedia Iranica, vol. 7, New York: Columbia University, pp. 41–50
^"Aramaic",Encyclopaedia Iranica, vol. 2, pp. 250–261, retrieved14 April 2018
^Sima Qian;Sima Tan (1739) [90s BC]. "Vol. 6".Shiji史記 [Records of the Grand Historian] (in Literary Chinese) (punctuated ed.). Beijing: Imperial Household Department.
^"Article 3. The state language".The Constitution of the People's Republic of Bangladesh. Ministry of Law, The People's Republic of Bangladesh. Retrieved2019-05-15.{{cite book}}:|website= ignored (help)
^"THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA"(PDF).Legislative Department. Government of India. 2022. Retrieved11 November 2023.343. Official language of the Union.—(1) The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script.
^The Palestine Gazette, No. 898 of 29 June 1939, Supplement 2, pp. 464–465.
^Law and Administration Ordinance No 1 of 5708—1948, clause 15(b). Official Gazette No. 1 of 5th Iyar, 5708; as per authorised translation inLaws of the State of Israel, Vol. I (1948) p. 10.
^Mac Síthigh, Daithí (March 2018). "Official status of languages in the United Kingdom and Ireland".Common Law World Review.47 (1):77–102.doi:10.1177/1473779518773642.
Nakanishi, Akira (2003).Writing systems of the world: alphabets, syllabaries, pictograms. Rutland, Vermont: Tuttle.ISBN0-8048-1654-9. – lists official languages of the countries of the world, among other information.
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