   Top: ThePetit Trianon (Versailles, France), 1764, byAnge-Jacques Gabriel; Centre: TheBrandenburg Gate (Berlin, Germany), 1791, byCarl Gotthard Langhans; Bottom:Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel (Paris), 1806–1808, byPierre-François-Léonard Fontaine | |
| Years active | 18th century–mid-20th century |
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Neoclassical architecture, sometimes referred to asClassical Revival architecture, is anarchitectural style produced by theNeoclassical movement that began in the mid-18th century inItaly,France andGermany.[1] It became one of the most prominent architectural styles in theWestern world.[2] The prevailing styles of architecture in most of Europe for the previous two centuries,Renaissance architecture andBaroque architecture, already represented partial revivals of theClassical architecture ofancient Rome andancient Greek architecture, but the Neoclassical movement aimed to strip away the excesses of Late Baroque and return to a purer, more complete, and more authentic classical style, adapted to modern purposes.
The development ofarchaeology and published accurate records of surviving classical buildings was crucial in the emergence of Neoclassical architecture. In many countries, there was an initial wave essentially drawing on Roman architecture, followed, from about the start of the 19th century, by a second wave ofGreek Revival architecture. This followed increased understanding of Greek survivals. As the 19th century continued, the style tended to lose its original rather austere purity in variants like the FrenchEmpire style. The term "neoclassical" is often used very loosely for any building using some of the classical architectural vocabulary.
In form, Neoclassical architecture emphasizes the wall rather thanchiaroscuro and maintains separate identities to each of its parts. The style is manifested both in its details as a reaction against theRococo style of naturalistic ornament, and in its architectural formulae as an outgrowth of some classicizing features of the Late Baroque architectural tradition. Therefore, the style is defined by symmetry, simple geometry, and social demands instead of ornament.[3] In the 21st century, a version of the style continues, sometimes calledNew Classical architecture or New Classicism.
Neoclassical architecture is a specific style and moment in the late 18th and early 19th centuries that was specifically associated with theEnlightenment,empiricism, and the study of sites by early archaeologists.[4] Classical architecture after about 1840 must be classified as one of a series of "revival" styles, such asGreek,Renaissance, orItalianate. Various historians of the 19th century have made this clear since the 1970s. Classical architecture during the 20th century is classified less as a revival, and more a return to a style that was decelerated with the advent ofModernism. Yet still Neoclassical architecture is beginning to be practiced again in the 21st century more in the form ofNew Classical architecture and even inGentrification andHistoricism Architecture, the Neoclassical architecture or its important elements are still being used, even whenPostmodern architecture is dominant throughout the world.
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A return to more classical architectural forms as a reaction to theRococo style can be detected in some European architecture of the earlier 18th century, most vividly represented in the Palladian architecture of GeorgianBritain andIreland. The name refers to the designs of the 16th-century Venetian architectAndrea Palladio.
TheBaroque style had never truly been to the English taste. Four influential books were published in the first quarter of the 18th century which highlighted the simplicity and purity of classical architecture:Vitruvius Britannicus byColen Campbell (1715), Palladio'sI quattro libri dell'architettura (The Four Books of Architecture, 1715),De re aedificatoria byLeon Battista Alberti (first published in 1452) andThe Designs of Inigo Jones... with Some Additional Designs (1727). The most popular was the four-volumeVitruvius Britannicus by Colen Campbell. The book contained architectural prints of famous British buildings that had been inspired by the great architects from Vitruvius to Palladio. At first the book mainly featured the work ofInigo Jones, but the later tomes contained drawings and plans by Campbell and other 18th-century architects. Palladian architecture became well established in 18th-century Britain.
At the forefront of the new school of design was the aristocratic "architect earl",Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington; in 1729, he andWilliam Kent designedChiswick House. This house was a reinterpretation of Palladio'sVilla Capra "La Rotonda", but purified of 16th-century elements and ornament. This severe lack of ornamentation was to be a feature of Palladianism. In 1734, William Kent and Lord Burlington designed one of England's finest examples of Palladian architecture,Holkham Hall inNorfolk. The main block of this house followed Palladio's dictates quite closely, but Palladio's low, often detached, wings of farm buildings were elevated in significance.
This classicizing vein was also detectable, to a lesser degree, in the Late Baroque architecture in Paris, such as in theLouvre Colonnade. This shift was even visible in Rome at the redesigned façade forArchbasilica of Saint John Lateran.
![Russborough House County Wicklow, Ireland a notable example of Irish Palladianism,[5] 1741–1755, by Richard Cassels](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fwikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aRussborough-House_Part-of-the-facade.jpg)
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By the mid-18th century, the movement broadened to incorporate a greater range of classical influences, including those fromAncient Greece. An early centre of neoclassicism was Italy, especiallyNaples, where by the 1730s court architects such asLuigi Vanvitelli andFerdinando Fuga were recovering classical, Palladian andMannerist forms in their Baroque architecture. Following their lead,Giovanni Antonio Medrano began to build the first truly neoclassical structures in Italy in the 1730s. In the same period,Alessandro Pompei introduced neoclassicism to theVenetian Republic, building one of the firstlapidariums in Europe inVerona, in theDoric style (1738). During the same period, neoclassical elements were introduced toTuscany by architectJean Nicolas Jadot de Ville-Issey, the court architect ofFrancis Stephen of Lorraine. On Jadot's lead, an original neoclassical style was developed byGaspare Maria Paoletti, transformingFlorence into the most important centre of neoclassicism in the peninsula. In the second half of the century, Neoclassicism flourished also inTurin,Milan (Giuseppe Piermarini) andTrieste (Matteo Pertsch). In the latter two cities, just as in Tuscany, the sober neoclassical style was linked to the reformism of the rulingHabsburg enlightened monarchs.
The shift to neoclassical architecture is conventionally dated to the 1750s. It first gained influence in England and France; in England, SirWilliam Hamilton's excavations atPompeii and other sites, the influence of theGrand Tour, and the work ofWilliam Chambers andRobert Adam, were pivotal in this regard. In France, the movement was propelled by a generation of French art students trained in Rome, and was influenced by the writings ofJohann Joachim Winckelmann. The style was also adopted by progressive circles in other countries such as Sweden andRussia.
International neoclassical architecture was exemplified inKarl Friedrich Schinkel's buildings, especially theAltes Museum in Berlin, SirJohn Soane'sBank of England in London and the newly builtWhite House andCapitol in Washington, D.C. of the nascentAmerican Republic. The style was international. TheBaltimore Basilica, which was designed byBenjamin Henry Latrobe in 1806, is considered one of the finest examples of neoclassical architecture in the world[by whom?].
A second neoclassic wave, more severe, more studied and more consciously archaeological, is associated with the height of theFirst French Empire. In France, the first phase of neoclassicism was expressed in theLouis XVI style, and the second in the styles calledDirectoire andEmpire. Its major proponents werePercier and Fontaine, court architects who specialized in interior decoration.[6]
In the decorative arts, neoclassicism is exemplified in French furniture of the Empire style; the English furniture ofChippendale,George Hepplewhite andRobert Adam,Wedgwood'sbas reliefs and "black basaltes"vases, and theBiedermeier furniture of Austria. The Scottish architectCharles Cameron created palatial Italianate interiors for the German-bornCatherine the Great inSaint Petersburg.[7]
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Indoors, neoclassicism made a discovery of the genuine classic interior, inspired by the rediscoveries atPompeii andHerculaneum. These had begun in the late 1740s, but only achieved a wide audience in the 1760s, with the first luxurious volumes of tightly controlled distribution ofLe Antichità di Ercolano Esposte (The Antiquities of Herculaneum Exposed). The antiquities of Herculaneum showed that even the most classicizing interiors of theBaroque, or the most "Roman" rooms ofWilliam Kent were based onbasilica andtemple exterior architecture turned outside in, hence their often bombastic appearance to modern eyes:pedimented window frames turned intogilded mirrors, fireplaces topped with temple fronts.
The new interiors sought to recreate an authentically Roman and genuinely interior vocabulary. Techniques employed in the style included flatter, lighter motifs, sculpted in lowfrieze-like relief or painted in monotonesen camaïeu ("like cameos"), isolated medallions or vases or busts orbucrania or other motifs, suspended onswags of laurel or ribbon, with slenderarabesques against backgrounds, perhaps, of "Pompeiian red" or pale tints, or stone colours. The style in France was initially a Parisian style, thegoût grec ("Greek taste"), not a court style; whenLouis XVI acceded to the throne in 1774,Marie Antoinette, his fashion-loving Queen, brought theLouis XVI style to court. However, there was no real attempt to employ the basic forms of Roman furniture until around the turn of the century, and furniture-makers were more likely to borrow from ancient architecture, just as silversmiths were more likely to take from ancient pottery and stone-carving than metalwork: "Designers and craftsmen [...] seem to have taken an almost perverse pleasure in transferring motifs from one medium to another".[8]
Anew phase in neoclassical design was inaugurated by Robert andJames Adam, who travelled in Italy and Dalmatia in the 1750s, observing the ruins of the classical world. On their return to Britain, they published a book entitledThe Works in Architecture in installments between 1773 and 1779. This book of engraved designs made the Adam style available throughout Europe. The Adam brothers aimed to simplify theRococo andBaroque styles which had been fashionable in the preceding decades, to bring what they felt to be a lighter and more elegant feel to Georgian houses.The Works in Architecture illustrated the main buildings the Adam brothers had worked on and crucially documented the interiors, furniture and fittings, designed by the Adams.
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From about 1800 a fresh influx of Greek architectural examples, seen through the medium of etchings and engravings, gave a new impetus to neoclassicism, the Greek Revival. There was little direct knowledge of surviving Greek buildings before the middle of the 18th century inWestern Europe, when an expedition funded by theSociety of Dilettanti in 1751 and led byJames Stuart andNicholas Revett began serious archaeological enquiry. Stuart was commissioned after his return from Greece byGeorge Lyttelton to produce the first Greek building in England, the garden temple atHagley Hall (1758–59).[9] A number of British architects in the second half of the century took up the expressive challenge of the Doric from their aristocratic patrons, includingJoseph Bonomi the Elder andJohn Soane, but it was to remain the private enthusiasm of connoisseurs up to the first decade of the 19th century.[10]
Seen in its wider social context, Greek Revival architecture sounded a new note of sobriety and restraint in public buildings in Britain around 1800 as an assertion ofnationalism attendant on theAct of Union, theNapoleonic Wars, and the clamour for political reform. It was to beWilliam Wilkins's winning design for the public competition forDowning College, Cambridge, that announced the Greek style was to be the dominant idiom in architecture. Wilkins andRobert Smirke went on to build some of the most important buildings of the era, including theTheatre Royal,Covent Garden (1808–1809), theGeneral Post Office (1824–1829) and theBritish Museum (1823–1848), WilkinsUniversity College London (1826–1830) and theNational Gallery (1832–1838). In Scotland,Thomas Hamilton (1784–1858), in collaboration with the artistsAndrew Wilson (1780–1848) andHugh William Williams (1773–1829) created monuments and buildings of international significance; the Burns Monument at Alloway (1818) and theRoyal High School, Edinburgh (1823–1829).
At the same time theEmpire style in France was a more grandiose wave of neoclassicism in architecture and the decorative arts. Mainly based on Imperial Roman styles, it originated in, and took its name from, the rule ofNapoleon I in theFirst French Empire, where it was intended to idealize Napoleon's leadership and the French state. The style corresponds to the more bourgeoisBiedermeier style in the German-speaking lands,Federal style in the United States, theRegency style in Britain, and theNapoleonstil in Sweden. According to the art historianHugh Honour "so far from being, as is sometimes supposed, the culmination of the Neo-classical movement, the Empire marks its rapid decline and transformation back once more into a mere antique revival, drained of all the high-minded ideas and force of conviction that had inspired its masterpieces".[11]
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High neoclassicism was an international movement. Architects reacted against the excesses and profuse ornament used in LateBaroque architecture. The new "classical" architecture emphasized planar qualities, rather than elaborate sculptural ornament in both the interior and the exterior. Projections and recessions and their effects oflight and shade were more flat; sculptural bas-reliefs were flat and tended to be framed by friezes, tablets or panels. This was the first "stripped down" classical architecture, and appeared to be modern in the context of the Revolutionary period in Europe. At its most elemental, as in the work ofEtienne-Louis Boullée, it was highly abstract and geometrically pure.[12]
Neoclassicism also influenced city planning. The ancient Romans had used a consolidated scheme for city planning for both defence and civil convenience; however, the roots of this scheme go back to even older civilizations. At its most basic, thegrid system of streets, a central forum with city services, two main slightly wider boulevards, and the occasional diagonal street were characteristic of the very logical and orderly Roman design. Ancient façades and building layouts were oriented to these city design patterns and they tended to work in proportion with the importance of public buildings.
Many of theseurban planning patterns found their way into the first modernplanned cities of the 18th century. Exceptional examples includeKarlsruhe, Washington, D.C., Saint Petersburg, Buenos Aires, Havana, and Barcelona. Contrasting models may be found in Modernist designs exemplified byBrasília, theGarden city movement, andlevittowns.
The first phase ofneoclassicism in France is expressed in theLouis XV style of architectAnge-Jacques Gabriel (Petit Trianon, 1762–1768); the second phase, in the styles calledDirectoire andEmpire, might be characterized byJean Chalgrin's severe astylarArc de Triomphe (designed in 1806). In England the two phases might be characterized first by the structures ofRobert Adam, the second by those of SirJohn Soane. The interior style in France was initially a Parisian style, the "Goût grec" ("Greek style") not a court style. Only when the young KingLouis XVI acceded to the throne in 1774 didMarie Antoinette, his fashion-loving Queen, bring the Louis XVI style to court.
Many early 19th-century neoclassical architects were influenced by the drawings and projects ofÉtienne-Louis Boullée andClaude Nicolas Ledoux. The many graphite drawings of Boullée and his students depict spare geometrical architecture that emulates the eternality of the universe. There are links between Boullée's ideas andEdmund Burke's conception of thesublime. Ledoux addressed the concept of architectural character, maintaining that a building should immediately communicate its function to the viewer: taken literally, such ideas give rise toarchitecture parlante ("speaking architecture").
From about 1800 a fresh influx of Greek architectural examples, seen through the medium of etchings and engravings, gave a new impetus to neoclassicism that is called theGreek Revival. Although several European cities – notablySaint Petersburg,Athens, Berlin andMunich – were transformed into veritable museums of Greek revival architecture, the Greek Revival in France was never popular with either the state or the public.
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Neoclassical architecture became a symbol of national pride during the 18th century in Germany, in what was thenPrussia.Karl Friedrich Schinkel built many notable buildings in this style, including theAltes Museum in Berlin. While the city remained dominated by Baroque city planning, his architecture and functional style provided the city with a distinctly neoclassical center.
Schinkel's work is very comparable to Neoclassical architecture in Britain since he drew much of his inspiration from that country. He made trips to observe the buildings and develop his functional style.[3]
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From the middle of the 18th century, exploration and publication changed the course of British architecture from thePalladian architecture towards a purer vision of the Ancient Greco-Roman ideal.James 'Athenian' Stuart's workThe Antiquities of Athens and Other Monuments of Greece was very influential in this regard, as wereRobert Wood'sPalmyra andBaalbec. A combination of simple forms and high levels of enrichment was adopted by the majority of contemporary British architects and designers. The revolution begun by Stuart was soon to be eclipsed by the work of theAdam brothers,James Wyatt,Sir William Chambers,George Dance the Younger,James Gandon, and provincially based architects such asJohn Carr andThomas Harrison ofChester.
InScotland and the north of England, where theGothic Revival was less strong, architects continued to develop the neoclassical style ofWilliam Henry Playfair. The works ofCuthbert Brodrick andAlexander Thomson show that by the end of the 19th century the results could be powerful and eccentric.
InIreland, whereGothic Revival was also less popular, a refined, restrained form of the neoclassical developed, and can be seen in the works ofJames Gandon and other architects working at the time. It is particularly evident inDublin, which is a largely neoclassical and Georgian city.
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After the establishment of theKingdom of Greece in 1832, the architecture of Greece was mostly influenced by the Neoclassical architecture. For Athens, the first King of Greece,Otto I, commissioned the architectsStamatios Kleanthis andEduard Schaubert to design a modern city plan. TheOld Royal Palace was the first important public building to be built, between 1836 and 1843. Later, in the mid- and late 19th century,Theophil Hansen andErnst Ziller took part in the construction of many neoclassical buildings. Theophil Hansen designed his first building, theNational Observatory of Athens, and two of the three contiguous buildings forming the so-called "Athens Classical Trilogy", namely theAcademy of Athens (1859) and theNational Library of Greece (1888), the third building of the trilogy being theNational and Capodistrian University of Athens (1843), which was designed by his brotherChristian Hansen. Also he designed theZappeion Hall (1888). Ernst Ziller also designed many private mansions in the centre of Athens which gradually became public, usually through donations, such the mansion ofHeinrich Schliemann,Iliou Melathron (1880). The city ofNauplio is also an important example of Neoclassical architecture along with the islands ofPoros andSyros (especially in the capitalErmoupoli).
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The earliest examples of neoclassical architecture in Hungary may be found inVác. In this town the triumphal arch and the neoclassical façade of the Baroque Cathedral were designed by the French architect Isidor Marcellus Amandus Ganneval (Isidore Canevale) in the 1760s. Also the work of a French architect,Jean-Charles-Alexandre Moreau, is the garden façade of theEsterházy Palace (1797–1805) in Kismarton (todayEisenstadt in Austria).
The two principal architects of Neoclassicism in Hungary wereMihály Pollack andJózsef Hild. Pollack's major work is theHungarian National Museum (1837–1844). Hild is famous for his designs for the Cathedral ofEger andEsztergom. TheReformed Great Church of Debrecen is an outstanding example of the many Protestant churches that were built in the first half of the 19th century. This was the time of the first iron structures in Hungarian architecture, the most important of which is theSzéchenyi Chain Bridge byWilliam Tierney Clark.
Although not a western country, due to Western influence Japan has had neoclassical architecture produced in it. This includes the uniqueHiko Shrine [ja] which is aShinto shrine based onGreek temples. It later developed into theImperial Crown Style which contains elements of both Eastern and Western design[13] Roofs are notably distinctly Asian in this style and it was used heavily by theJapanese Empire in its colonies.[14][15][16]
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Neoclassical architecture was introduced in Malta in the late 18th century, during the final years ofHospitaller rule. Early examples include theBibliotheca (1786),[17] theDe Rohan Arch (1798)[18] and theHompesch Gate (1801).[19] However, neoclassical architecture only became popular in Malta following theestablishment of British rule in the early 19th century. In 1814, a neoclassicalportico decorated with the British coat of arms was added to theMain Guard building so as to serve as a symbol of British Malta. Other 19th-century neoclassical buildings include theMonument to Sir Alexander Ball (1810),RNH Bighi (1832),St Paul's Pro-Cathedral (1844), theRotunda of Mosta (1860) and the now-destroyedRoyal Opera House, Valletta (1866).[20]
Neoclassicism gave way to other architectural styles by the late 19th century. Few buildings were built in the neoclassical style during the 20th century, such as theDomvs Romana museum (1922),[21] and theCourts of Justice building (Valletta) (1965–1971).[22]
Neoclassicalarchitecture in Mexico had two main eras, the first was toward the end of Spanish colonial rule and the second phase was during independent Mexico beginning in the mid-19th century.
As part of theSpanish Enlightenment's cultural impact on the Kingdom ofNew Spain (Mexico), the crown established theAcademy of San Carlos in 1785 to train painters, sculptors, and architects in New Spain, under the direction of the peninsularGerónimo Antonio Gil.[23] The academy emphasized neoclassicism, which drew on the inspiration of the clean lines of Greek and Roman architecture, but also, for some monuments, from the Aztec and Maya architectural traditions.[24] The preeminent Neoclassical architect in Mexico wasManuel Tolsá.
Neoclassicism in Mexican architecture was directly linked to crown policies that sought to rein in the exuberance of theNew Spanish Baroque, and to create public buildings of "good taste" funded by the crown, such as thePalacio de Minería in Mexico City, theHospicio Cabañas in Guadalajara, and theAlhóndiga de Granaditas inGuanajuato, all built in the late colonial era.[25]
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FollowingIndependence, the construction of major neoclassical buildings came to an end as a result of interruptions to the operation of the Academy of San Carlos and economic turmoil caused by the War of Independence. The economic slump was worsened by a succession of wars, including theSpanish reconquest attempts,First French Intervention,First American Intervention andReform War. It was not until the late 1860s, with therestoration of the Republic and the subsequent stability of thePax Porfiriana that Mexico saw a significant number of new neoclassical buildings. The Academy of San Carlos saw a renewal of neoclassicism ideals under directorFrancesco Saverio Cavallari.
During the Porfiriato, the predominant architectural taste favoredEclecticism. Buildings such as theTeatro Juárez,Museo Nacional de Arte andPalacio de Bellas Artes, are eclectic buildings that combine different architectural styles and are not solely neoclassical.
An important unfinished neoclassical building was the plannedPalacio Legislativo Federal byÉmile Bénard. Construction was halted by theMexican Revolution and it was eventually turned into theMonumento a la Revolución.
![St. Joseph Parish, San José Iturbide, by Ramón Ramírez y Arangoiti (1866-1995)[26]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fwikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aParroquia_de_San_Jos%25C3%25A9_-_San_Jos%25C3%25A9_Iturbide%2c_Guanajuato%2c_M%25C3%25A9xico.jpg)
The Neoclassical style arrived in the American empires ofSpain andPortugal through projects designed in Europe or carried out locally by European orCriollo architects trained in the academies of themetropolis. There are also examples of the adaptation to the local architectural language, which during previous centuries had made a synthesis or syncretism of European and pre-Columbian elements in the so-called Colonial Baroque.
Two more Classical criteria belong, inChile, theLa Moneda Palace (1784–1805) and theSantiago Metropolitan Cathedral (1748–1899), both works by the Italian architectJoaquín Toesca. In Ecuador, the Quito'sPalacio de Carondelet (Ecuador's Government Palace) built between 1611–1801 by Antonio García. At the dawn of the independence of Hispanic America, constructive programs were developed in the new republics. Neoclassicism was introduced inNew Granada byMarcelino Pérez de Arroyo. Later, inColombia, theCapitolio Nacional was built inBogotá between 1848–1926 byThomas Reed, trained at the BerlinBauakademie; thePrimatial Cathedral of Bogotá (1807–1823), designed by FriarDomingo de Petrés; and inPeru theBasilica Cathedral of Arequipa built between 1540–1844 byLucas Poblete.
Brazil, which became the seat of the court of thePortuguese monarchy, gaining independence from its metropolis as theEmpire of Brazil, also used the resources of architecture for the glorification of political power, and it was decided to resort to architects trained in theAcadémie royale d'architecture. To this period belong the portal of theImperial Academy of Fine Arts inRio de Janeiro made in 1826 and theImperial Palace of Petrópolis built between 1845–1862.
Argentina is another of the countries that seeks to shed its colonial past, but in the context of the reorganization of the country after independence in 1810, an aspect of power was sought that transmitted the presence of the State, inspiring respect and devotion, including of course the architecture. However, a style of its own was not conceived, but the Classical canon was introduced, not in the form of a replica of buildings from Antiquity, but with a classical predominance and a lot of influence fromFrench Classicism; which lasted until the 20th century.
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Like most western tradition, it arrived in the Pacific Archipelagos via rule from New Spain (Mexico) during the period of governance by Mexico City as one of the best preferred architecture in theSpanish East Indies, manifested in churches, civic buildings and one of the popular architectural ornament for newer styledBahay na bato andBahay kubo. When the power over the archipelago was transferred from Spain to the United States of America, the style became more popular and developed from slightly simple approach during the Spanish era, to a more ornamented style of theBeaux-Arts architecture sparked by the return of massive number of architectural students to the islands from the western schools. It also became a symbol of democracy and the approaching republic during thecommonwealth.
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The centre of Polish-Lithuanian Neoclassicism wasWarsaw andVilnius under the rule of the last Polish king and Lithuanian grand duke,Stanisław August Poniatowski.Vilnius University was another important centre of Neoclassical architecture in Europe, led by the notable professors of architectureMarcin Knackfus,Laurynas Gucevičius andKarol Podczaszyński. The style was expressed in the shape of main public buildings, such as theVilnius University Astronomical Observatory,Vilnius Cathedral and thetown hall.
The best-known architects and artists, who worked in thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth wereDominik Merlini,Jan Chrystian Kamsetzer,Szymon Bogumił Zug,Jakub Kubicki,Antonio Corazzi,Efraim Szreger,Chrystian Piotr Aigner andBertel Thorvaldsen.
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In theRussian Empire at the end of the 19th century, neoclassical architecture was equal toSaint Petersburg architecture because this style was specific for a huge number of buildings in the city.Catherine the Great adopted the style during her reign by allowing the architectJean-Baptiste Vallin de la Mothe to build the Old Hermitage and theImperial Academy of Arts.[3]
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Spanish Neoclassicism was exemplified by the work ofJuan de Villanueva, who adaptedEdmund Burke's theories of beauty and the sublime to the requirements of Spanish climate and history. He built theMuseo del Prado, which combined three functions: an academy, an auditorium, and a museum in one building with three separate entrances.
This was part of the ambitious program ofCharles III, who intended to make Madrid the Capital of the Arts and Sciences. Very close to the museum, Villanueva built theRoyal Observatory of Madrid. He also designed several summer houses for the kings inEl Escorial andAranjuez and reconstructed thePlaza Mayor, Madrid, among other important works. Villanueva's pupils expanded the Neoclassical style in Spain.
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In the new republic,Robert Adam's neoclassical manner was adapted for the local late 18th- and early 19th-century style, calledFederal architecture. One of the pioneers of this style was the English-bornBenjamin Henry Latrobe, who is often noted as one of America's first formally trained professional architects and the father of American architecture. TheBaltimore Basilica, the firstRoman Catholic cathedral in the United States, is considered by many experts to be Latrobe's masterpiece.
Another notable American architect who is identified with Federal architecture wasThomas Jefferson. He was very interested in the building he saw in Paris when he served there as ambassador, and built several neoclassical buildings, with his own innovations, including his personal estateMonticello, theVirginia State Capitol, and theUniversity of Virginia.[3]
A second neoclassical manner found in the United States during the 19th century was calledGreek Revival architecture. It differs from Federal architecture as it strictly follows the Greek idiom, however it was used to describe all buildings of theNeoclassicism period that display classical orders.[27]
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28. ^ Guagliumi, Silvia (2014), "La Villa Archinto a Monza.Analogie con alcuni esempi d'architettura neoclassica in Lombardia", Silvia editrice (ISBN 978-88-96036-62-4), basata sulla propria Tesi di Laurea in Architettura presso il Politecnico di Milano discussa nell'anno accademico 1982/'83 con Relatore il Prof.Arch.C.Perogalli.
