Haiti,[b] officially theRepublic of Haiti,[c][d] is a country on the island ofHispaniola in theCaribbean Sea, east ofCuba andJamaica, and south ofthe Bahamas. It occupies the western three-eighths of the island, which it shares with theDominican Republic.[18][19] Haiti is the third largest country in theCaribbean, and with an estimated population of 11.4 million, is the most populous Caribbean country.[20][21][22] The capital and largest city isPort-au-Prince.
Haiti (also earlierHayti)[d] comes from the indigenousTaíno language and means "land of high mountains";[38] it was the native name[e] for the entire island ofHispaniola. The name was restored by Haitian revolutionaryJean-Jacques Dessalines as the official name of independent Saint-Domingue, as a tribute to the Amerindian predecessors.[42]
In French, theï inHaïti has adiacritical mark (used to show that the second vowel is pronounced separately, as in the wordnaïve), while theH is silent.[43] (In English, this rule for the pronunciation is often disregarded, thus the spellingHaiti is used.) There are different anglicizations for its pronunciation such asHIGH-ti,high-EE-ti andhaa-EE-ti, which are still in use, butHAY-ti is the most widespread and best-established.[44] In French, Haiti's nickname means the "Pearl of the Antilles" (La Perle des Antilles) because of both its natural beauty[45] and the amount of wealth it accumulated for theKingdom of France.[46] InHaitian Creole, it is spelled and pronounced with ay but noH:Ayiti.Another theory on the name Haiti is its origin in African tradition; in Fon language, one of the most spoken by the bossales (Haitians born in Africa),Ayiti-Tomè means: "From nowadays this land is our land."[citation needed]
In the Haitian community the country has multiple nicknames: Ayiti-Toma (as its origin in Ayiti Tomè), Ayiti-Cheri (Ayiti my Darling), Tè-Desalin (Dessalines' Land) or Lakay (Home).[citation needed]
The fivecaciquedoms of Hispaniola at the time of the arrival of Christopher Columbus
The island ofHispaniola, of which Haiti occupies the western three-eighths,[18][19] has been inhabited since around 6,000 years ago by Native Americans who are thought to have arrived from Central or northern South America. These Archaic Age people are thought to have been largely hunter gatherers. During the1st millennium BC, the Arawakan-speaking ancestors of the Taino people began to migrate into the Caribbean. Unlike the Archaic peoples, they practiced the intensive production ofpottery and agriculture. The earliest evidence of the ancestors of the Taino people on Hispaniola is the Ostionoid culture, which dates to around 600 AD.[47]
In Taíno society the largest unit of political organization was led by acacique, or chief, as the Europeans understood them. At the time of European contact, the island of Hispaniola was divided among five 'caciquedoms': the Magua in the northeast, the Marien in the northwest, the Jaragua in the southwest, the Maguana in the central regions of Cibao, and the Higüey in the southeast.[48][49]
Taíno cultural artifacts includecave paintings in several locations in the country. These have become national symbols of Haiti and tourist attractions. Modern-dayLéogâne, started as a French colonial town in the southwest, is beside the former capital of the caciquedom ofXaragua.[50]
NavigatorChristopher Columbus landed in Haiti on 6 December 1492, in an area that he namedMôle-Saint-Nicolas,[51] and claimed the island for theCrown of Castile. Nineteen days later, his ship theSanta María ran aground near the present site ofCap-Haïtien. Columbus left 39 men on the island, who founded the settlement ofLa Navidad on 25 December 1492.[52] Relations with the native peoples, initially good, broke down and the settlers were later killed by the Taíno.[53]
The sailors carried endemic Eurasianinfectious diseases, causingepidemics that killed a large number of native people.[54][55] The first recordedsmallpox epidemic in the Americas erupted on Hispaniola in 1507.[56] Their numbers were further reduced by the harshness of theencomienda system, in which the Spanish forced natives to work in gold mines and plantations.[57][53]
The Spanish passed theLaws of Burgos (1512–1513), which forbade the maltreatment of natives, endorsed theirconversion to Catholicism,[58] and gave legal framework toencomiendas. The natives were brought to these sites to work in specific plantations or industries.[59]
As the Spanish re-focused their colonization efforts on the greater riches of mainland Central and South America, Hispaniola became reduced largely to a trading and refueling post. As a resultpiracy became widespread, encouraged by European powers hostile to Spain such as France (based onÎle de la Tortue) and England.[53] The Spanish largely abandoned the western third of the island, focusing their colonization effort on the eastern two-thirds.[60][52] The western part of the island was thus gradually settled by Frenchbuccaneers; among them was Bertrand d'Ogeron, who succeeded in growingtobacco and recruited many French colonial families fromMartinique andGuadeloupe.[61] In 1697France andSpain settled their hostilities on the island by way of theTreaty of Ryswick of 1697, which divided Hispaniola between them.[62][52]
France received the western third and subsequently named it Saint-Domingue, the French equivalent ofSanto Domingo, the Spanish colony onHispaniola.[63] The French set about creating sugar and coffee plantations, worked by vast numbers of those enslaved imported fromAfrica, and Saint-Domingue grew to become their richest colonial possession,[62][52] generating 40% of France’s foreign trade and doubling the wealth generation of all of England’s colonies, combined.[64]
The French settlers were outnumbered by enslaved persons by almost 10 to 1.[62] According to the 1788 Census, Haiti's population consisted of nearly 25,000 Europeans, 22,000 free coloreds and 700,000 Africans in slavery.[65] In contrast, by 1763 the white population ofFrench Canada, a far larger territory, had numbered only 65,000.[66] In the north of the island, those enslaved were able to retain many ties to African cultures, religion and language; these ties were continually being renewed by newly imported Africans. Some West Africans in slavery held on to their traditionalVodou beliefs by secretly syncretizing it with Catholicism.[52]
The French enacted theCode Noir ("Black Code"), prepared byJean-Baptiste Colbert and ratified byLouis XIV, which established rules on slave treatment and permissible freedoms.[67] Saint-Domingue has been described as one of the most brutally efficient slave colonies; at the end of the eighteenth century it was supplying two-thirds of Europe's tropical produce while one-third of newly imported Africans died within a few years.[68] Many enslaved persons died from diseases such assmallpox andtyphoid fever.[69] They had lowbirth rates,[70] and there is evidence that some womenaborted fetuses rather than give birth to children within the bonds ofslavery.[71] The colony's environment also suffered, as forests were cleared to make way for plantations and the land was overworked so as to extract maximum profit for French plantation owners.[52]
As in itsLouisiana colony, theFrench colonial government allowed some rights tofree people of color (gens de couleur), themixed-race descendants of European male colonists and African enslaved females (and later, mixed-race women).[62] Over time, many were released from slavery and they established a separatesocial class. White FrenchCreole fathers frequently sent their mixed-race sons toFrance for their education. Some men of color were admitted into the military. More of the free people of color lived in the south of the island, nearPort-au-Prince, and many intermarried within their community.[62] They frequently worked as artisans and tradesmen, and began to own some property, including enslaved persons of their own.[52][62] The free people of color petitioned thecolonial government to expand their rights.[62]
The brutality of slave life led many people in bondage to escape to mountainous regions, where they set up their own autonomous communities and became known asmaroons.[52] One maroon leader,François Mackandal, led a rebellion in the 1750s; however, he was later captured and executed by the French.[62]
Inspired by theFrench Revolution of 1789 and principles of therights of man, the French settlers and free people of color pressed for greater political freedom and morecivil rights.[67] Tensions between these two groups led to conflict, as a militia of free-coloreds was set up in 1790 byVincent Ogé, resulting in his capture, torture and execution.[52] Sensing an opportunity, in August 1791 the first slave armies were established in northern Haiti under the leadership ofToussaint Louverture inspired by the Vodouhoungan (priest) Boukman, and backed by the Spanish in Santo Domingo – soon a full-blown slave rebellion had broken out across the entire colony.[52]
TheUnited States, which was a new republic itself, oscillated between supporting or not supportingToussaint Louverture and the emerging country of Haiti, depending on who was President of the US. Washington, who was a slave holder and isolationist, kept the United States neutral, although private US citizens at times provided aid to Frenchplanters trying to put down the revolt.John Adams, a vocal opponent of slavery, fully supported the slave revolt by providing diplomatic recognition, financial support, munitions and warships (including theUSS Constitution) beginning in 1798. This support ended in 1801 when Jefferson, another slave-holding president, took office and recalled the US Navy.[73][74][75]
With slavery abolished, Toussaint Louverture pledged allegiance to France, and he fought off the British and Spanish forces who had taken advantage of the situation and invaded Saint-Domingue.[76][77] The Spanish were later forced to cede their part of the island to France under the terms of thePeace of Basel in 1795, uniting the island under one government. However, an insurgency against French rule broke out in the east, and in the west there was fighting between Louverture's forces and the free people of color led byAndré Rigaud in theWar of the Knives (1799–1800).[78][79] The United States' support for the blacks in the war contributed to their victory over the mulattoes.[80] More than 25,000 whites and free blacks left the island as refugees.[81]
Battle betweenPolish troops in French service and theHaitian rebels. The majority of Polish soldiers eventually deserted the French army and fought alongside the Haitians.
After Louverture created a separatist constitution and proclaimed himself governor-general for life,Napoléon Bonaparte in 1802 sent anexpedition of 20,000 soldiers and as many sailors[82] under the command of his brother-in-law,Charles Leclerc, to reassert French control. The French achieved some victories, but within a few months most of theirarmy had died fromyellow fever.[83] Ultimately more than 50,000 French troops died in an attempt to retake the colony, including 18 generals.[84] The French managed to capture Louverture, transporting him to France for trial. He was imprisoned atFort de Joux, where he died in 1803 of exposure and possiblytuberculosis.[68][85]
Haitians hanging French soldiers
The enslaved persons, along with freegens de couleur and allies, continued their fight for independence, led by generalsJean-Jacques Dessalines,Alexandre Pétion andHenry Christophe.[85] The rebels finally managed to decisively defeat the French troops at theBattle of Vertières on 18 November 1803, establishing the first state ever to successfully gain independence through a slave revolt.[86] Under the overall command of Dessalines, the Haitian armies avoided open battle, and instead conducted a successful guerrilla campaign against the Napoleonic forces, working with diseases such as yellow fever to reduce the numbers of French soldiers.[87] Later that year France withdrew its remaining 7,000 troops from the island and Napoleon gave up his idea of re-establishing a North American empire, sellingLouisiana (New France) to theUnited States, in theLouisiana Purchase.[85]
Throughout the revolution, an estimated 20,000 French troops succumbed to yellow fever, while another 37,000 werekilled in action,[88] exceeding the total French soldiers killed in action across various 19th-century colonial campaigns in Algeria, Mexico, Indochina, Tunisia, and West Africa, which resulted in approximately 10,000 French soldiers killed in action combined.[89] The British sustained 45,000 dead.[90] Additionally, 350,000 ex-enslaved Haitians died.[91] In the process, Dessalines became arguably the most successful military commander in the struggle against Napoleonic France.[92]
Pétion and Dessalines swearing allegiance to each other before God; painting byGuillon-Lethière
The independence of Saint-Domingue was proclaimed under the native name 'Haiti' byJean-Jacques Dessalines on 1 January 1804 inGonaïves[93][94] and he was proclaimed "Emperor for Life" as Emperor Jacques I by his troops.[95] Dessalines at first offered protection to the white planters and others.[96] However, once in power, he ordered thegenocide of nearly all the remaining whites; between January and April 1804, 3,000 to 5,000 whites were killed, including those who had been friendly and sympathetic to the black population.[97] Onlythree categories of white people were selected out as exceptions and spared:Polish soldiers, some of whom had deserted from the French army and fought alongside the Haitian rebels; the small group ofGerman colonists invited to thenorth-west region; and a group ofmedical doctors and professionals.[98] Reportedly, people with connections to officers in the Haitian army were also spared, as well as the women who agreed to marry non-white men.[99]
Fearful of the potential impact the slave rebellion could have in theslave states, U.S. PresidentThomas Jefferson refused to recognize the new republic. The Southern politicians who were a powerful voting bloc in the American Congress prevented U.S. recognition for decades until they withdrew in 1861 to form theConfederacy.[100]
The revolution led to a wave of emigration.[101] In 1809, 9,000 refugees from Saint-Domingue, both white planters and people of color, settleden masse inNew Orleans, doubling the city's population, having been expelled from their initial refuge in Cuba by Spanish authorities.[102] In addition, the newly arrived enslaved persons added to the city's African population.[103]
The plantation system was re-established in Haiti, albeit for wages; however, many Haitians were marginalized and resented the heavy-handed manner in which this was enforced in the new nation's politics.[85] The rebel movement splintered, and Dessalines was assassinated by rivals on 17 October 1806.[104][Link to precise page][85]
State of Haiti, Kingdom of Haiti and the Republic (1806–1820)
After Dessalines' death Haiti became split into two, with theKingdom of Haiti in the north directed by Henri Christophe, later declaring himselfHenri I, and a republic in the south centered on Port-au-Prince, directed byAlexandre Pétion, anhomme de couleur.[106][107][108][109] Pétion's republic was less absolutist, and he initiated a series of land reforms which benefited the peasant class.[85] President Pétion also gave military and financial assistance to the revolutionary leaderSimón Bolívar, which were critical in enabling him to liberate theViceroyalty of New Granada.[110] Meanwhile, the French, who had managed to maintain a precarious control of eastern Hispaniola, weredefeated by insurgents led byJuan Sánchez Ramírez, with the area returning to Spanish rule in 1809 following theBattle of Palo Hincado.[111]
Beginning in 1821, PresidentJean-Pierre Boyer, also anhomme de couleur and successor to Pétion, reunified the island following the suicide of Henry Christophe.[52][112] AfterSanto Domingo declared its independence from Spain on 30 November 1821, Boyer invaded, seeking tounite the entire island by force and ending slavery in Santo Domingo.[113]
Struggling to revive the agricultural economy to producecommodity crops, Boyer passed the Code Rural, which denied peasant laborers the right to leave the land, enter the towns, or start farms or shops of their own, causing much resentment as most peasants wished to have their own farms rather than work on plantations.[114][115]
Starting in September 1824, more than 6,000African Americans migrated to Haiti, with transportation paid by an American philanthropic group similar in function to theAmerican Colonization Society and its efforts inLiberia.[116] Many found the conditions too harsh and returned to the United States.[citation needed]
In July 1825,King Charles X ofFrance, during a period of restoration of theFrench monarchy, sent afleet to reconquer Haiti. Under pressure, President Boyer agreed to a treaty by which France formally recognized the independence of the state in exchange fora payment of 150 millionfrancs.[52] By an order of 17 April 1826, the King of France renounced his rights of sovereignty and formally recognized the independence of Haiti.[117][118][119] The enforced payments to France hampered Haiti's economic growth for years, exacerbated by the fact that manyWestern states continued to refuse formaldiplomatic recognition to Haiti; Britain recognized Haitian independence in 1833, and the United States not until 1862.[52] Haiti borrowed heavily from Western banks at extremely high interest rates to repay the debt. Although the amount of the reparations was reduced to 90 million in 1838, by 1900 80% of Haiti's government spending was debt repayment and the country did not finish repaying it until 1947.[120][85]
After losing the support of Haiti's elite, Boyer was ousted in 1843, withCharles Rivière-Hérard replacing him as president.[52] Nationalist Dominican forces in eastern Hispaniola led byJuan Pablo Duarte seized control of Santo Domingo on 27 February 1844.[52] The Haitian forces, unprepared for a significant uprising, capitulated to the rebels, effectively ending Haitian rule of eastern Hispaniola. In March Rivière-Hérard attempted to reimpose his authority, but theDominicans inflicted heavy losses.[121] Rivière-Hérard was removed from office by the mulatto hierarchy and replaced with the aged generalPhilippe Guerrier, who assumed the presidency on 3 May 1844.[citation needed]
Guerrier died in April 1845, and was succeeded by GeneralJean-Louis Pierrot.[122] Pierrot's most pressing duty as the new president was to check the incursions of the Dominicans, who were harassing the Haitian troops.[122] Dominican gunboats were also making depredations on Haiti's coasts.[122] President Pierrot decided to open a campaign against the Dominicans, whom he considered merely as insurgents; however, the Haitian offensive of 1845 was stopped on the frontier.[121]
On 1 January 1846 Pierrot announced a fresh campaign to reimpose Haitian suzerainty over eastern Hispaniola, but his officers and men greeted this fresh summons with contempt.[121] Thus, a month later – February 1846 – when Pierrot ordered his troops to march against the Dominicans, the Haitian army mutinied, and its soldiers proclaimed his overthrow as president of the republic.[121] With the war against the Dominicans having become very unpopular in Haiti, it was beyond the power of the new president, GeneralJean-Baptiste Riché, to stage another invasion.[121]
On 27 February 1847, President Riché died after only a year in power and was replaced by an obscure officer, GeneralFaustin Soulouque.[52] During the first two years of Soulouque's administration the conspiracies and opposition he faced in retaining power were so manifold that the Dominicans were given a further breathing space in which to consolidate their independence.[121] But, when in 1848 France finally recognized the Dominican Republic as a free and independent state and provisionally signed a treaty of peace, friendship, commerce and navigation, Haiti immediately protested, claiming the treaty was an attack upon their own security.[121] Soulouque decided to invade the new Republic before the French Government could ratify the treaty.[121]
On 21 March 1849, Haitian soldiers attacked the Dominican garrison atLas Matas. The demoralized defenders offered almost no resistance before abandoning their weapons. Soulouque pressed on, capturingSan Juan. This left only the town ofAzua as the remaining Dominican stronghold between the Haitian army and the capital. On 6 April, Azua fell to the 18,000-strong Haitian army, with a 5,000-man Dominican counterattack failing to oust them.[76] The way toSanto Domingo was now clear. But the news of discontent existing at Port-au-Prince, which reached Soulouque, arrested his further progress and caused him to return with the army to his capital.[123]
Emboldened by the sudden retreat of the Haitian army, the Dominicans counter-attacked. Their flotilla went as far asDame-Marie on the west coast of Haiti, which they plundered and set on fire.[123] After another Haitian campaign in 1855, Britain and France intervened and obtained an armistice on behalf of the Dominicans, who declared independence as the Dominican Republic.[123]
The sufferings endured by the soldiers during the campaign of 1855, and the losses and sacrifices inflicted on the country without yielding any compensation or any practical results provoked great discontent.[123] In 1858 a revolution began, led by GeneralFabre Geffrard, Duke of Tabara. In December of that year, Geffrard defeated the Imperial Army and seized control of most of the country.[52] As a result, the Emperor abdicated his throne on 15 January 1859. Faustin was taken into exile and General Geffrard succeeded him as president.[citation needed]
Late 19th century–early 20th century
German Captain Thiele of theCharlotte handing over the German Ultimatum on 6 December 1897 during the Lüders Affair
The period following Soulouque's overthrow down to the turn of the century was a turbulent one for Haiti, with repeated bouts of political instability. President Geffrard was overthrown in a coup in 1867,[124] as was his successor,Sylvain Salnave, in 1869.[125] Under the Presidency ofMichel Domingue (1874–76) relations with the Dominican Republic were dramatically improved by the signing of a treaty, in which both parties acknowledged the independence of the other. Some modernisation of the economy and infrastructure also occurred in this period, especially under the Presidencies ofLysius Salomon (1879–1888) andFlorvil Hyppolite (1889–1896).[126]
Haiti's relations with outside powers were often strained. In 1889 the United States attempted toforce Haiti to permit the building of a naval base atMôle Saint-Nicolas, which was firmly resisted by President Hyppolite.[127] In 1892 theGerman government supported suppression of the reform movement ofAnténor Firmin, and in 1897, the Germans usedgunboat diplomacy to intimidate and then humiliate the Haitian government of PresidentTirésias Simon Sam (1896–1902) during theLüders Affair.[128]
In the first decades of the 20th century, Haiti experienced great political instability and was heavily in debt to France, Germany and the United States. A series of short lived presidencies came and went: PresidentPierre Nord Alexis was forced from power in 1908,[129][130] as was his successorFrançois C. Antoine Simon in 1911;[131] PresidentCincinnatus Leconte (1911–12) was killed in a (possibly deliberate) explosion at the National Palace;[132]Michel Oreste (1913–14) was ousted in a coup, as was his successorOreste Zamor in 1914.[133]
Germany increased its influence in Haiti in this period, with a small community of German settlers wielding disproportionate influence in Haiti's economy.[134][135] The German influence prompted anxieties in the United States, who had also invested heavily in the country, and whose government defended their right to oppose foreign interference in the Americas under theMonroe Doctrine.[52][135] In December 1914, the Americans removed $500,000 from the Haitian National Bank, but rather than seize it to help pay the debt, it was removed for safe-keeping in New York, thus giving the United States control of the bank and preventing other powers from doing so. This gave a stable financial base on which to build the economy, and to enable the debt to be repaid.[136]
In 1915, Haiti's new PresidentVilbrun Guillaume Sam sought to strengthen his tenuous rule by a mass execution of 167 political prisoners. Outrage at the killings led to riots, and Sam was captured and killed by a lynch mob.[135][137] Fearing possible foreign intervention, or the emergence of a new government led by the anti-American Haitian politicianRosalvo Bobo, PresidentWoodrow Wilson sent U.S. Marines into Haiti in July 1915. TheUSS Washington, under Rear AdmiralCaperton, arrived in Port-au-Prince in an attempt to restore order and protect U.S. interests. Within days, the Marines had taken control of the capital city and its banks and customs house. The Marines declared martial law and severely censored the press. Within weeks, a new pro-U.S. Haitian president,Philippe Sudré Dartiguenave, was installed and a new constitution written that was favorable to the interests of the United States. The constitution (written by future US PresidentFranklin D. Roosevelt) included a clause that allowed, for the first time, foreign ownership of land in Haiti, which was bitterly opposed by the Haitian legislature and citizenry.[135][138]
The body of caco leader Charlemagne Péralte on display after his execution by US forces; the image was counterproductive, with the resemblance to thedeposition of Jesus gaining Péralte the status of national martyr.
The occupation improved some of Haiti'sinfrastructure and centralized power in Port-au-Prince.[135] 1700 km of roads were made usable, 189 bridges were built, many irrigation canals were rehabilitated, hospitals, schools, and public buildings were constructed, and drinking water was brought to the main cities.[citation needed] Agricultural education was organized, with a central school of agriculture and 69 farms in the country.[139][incomplete short citation] However, many infrastructure projects were built using thecorvée system that allowed the government/occupying forces to take people from their homes and farms, at gunpoint if necessary, to build roads, bridges etc. by force, a process that was deeply resented by ordinary Haitians.[140][135]Sisal was also introduced to Haiti, and sugarcane andcotton became significant exports, boosting prosperity.[141] Haitian traditionalists, based in rural areas, were highly resistant to U.S.-backed changes, while the urban elites, typically mixed-race, welcomed the growing economy, but wanted more political control.[52] Together they helped secure an end to the occupation in 1934, under the Presidency ofSténio Vincent (1930–1941).[52][142] The debts were still outstanding, though less due to increased prosperity, and the U.S. financial advisor-general receiver handled the budget until 1941.[143][52]
The U.S. Marines were instilled with a special brand of paternalism towards Haitians "expressed in the metaphor of a father's relationship with his children."[144] Armed opposition to the US presence was led by thecacos under the command ofCharlemagne Péralte; his capture and execution in 1919 earned him the status of a national martyr.[145][52][135] During Senate hearings in 1921, the commandant of the Marine Corps reported that, in the 20 months of active unrest, 2,250 Haitians had been killed. However, in a report to the Secretary of the Navy, he reported the death toll as being 3,250.[146] Haitian historians have claimed the true number was much higher, but this is not supported by most historians outside Haiti.[147]
Post-occupation era (1934–1957)
After U.S. forces left in 1934,Dominican dictatorRafael Trujillo usedanti-Haitian sentiment as a nationalist tool. In 1937, in an event that became known as theParsley Massacre, he ordered his army to kill Haitians living on the Dominican side of the border.[148][149] Few bullets were used; instead, 20,000–30,000 Haitians were bludgeoned and bayoneted, then herded into the sea, where sharks finished what Trujillo had begun.[150] The indiscriminate massacre occurred over a period of five days.
Haitian PresidentVincent, under U.S. pressure owing to his increasingly dictatorial actions, resigned in 1941 and was replaced byÉlie Lescot (1941–46).[151] In 1941, during theSecond World War, Lescot declared war onJapan (8 December),Germany (12 December),Italy (12 December),Bulgaria (24 December),Hungary (24 December) andRomania (24 December).[152] Out of these sixAxis countries, only Romania reciprocated, declaring war on Haiti on the same day (24 December 1941).[153] On 27 September 1945,[154] Haiti became afounding member of theUnited Nations (the successor to theLeague of Nations, of which Haiti was also a founding member).[155][156]
In 1946 Lescot was overthrown by the military, withDumarsais Estimé later becoming the new president (1946–50).[52] Estimé sought to improve the economy and education, and to boost the role of black Haitians; however, as he sought to consolidate his rule he too was overthrown in a coup led byPaul Magloire, who replaced him as president (1950–56).[52][157] Firmly anti-Communist, he was supported by the United States; with greater political stability tourists started to visit Haiti.[158] The waterfront area ofPort-au-Prince was redeveloped to allow cruise ship passengers to walk to cultural attractions.
In 1956–57 Haiti underwent severe political turmoil; Magloire was forced to resign and leave the country in 1956 and he was followed by four short-lived presidencies.[52] In theSeptember 1957 electionFrançois Duvalier was elected President of Haiti. Known as 'Papa Doc' and initially popular, Duvalier remained President until his death in 1971.[159] He advanced black interests in the public sector, where over time, people of color had predominated as the educated urban elite.[52][160] Not trusting the army, despite his frequent purges of officers deemed disloyal, Duvalier created a private militia known asTontons Macoutes ("Bogeymen"), which maintained order by terrorizing the populace and political opponents.[159][161] In 1964 Duvalier proclaimed himself 'President for Life';an uprising against his rule that year inJérémie was violently suppressed, with the ringleaders publicly executed and hundreds of mixed-raced citizens in the town killed.[159] The bulk of the educated and professional class began leaving the country, and corruption became widespread.[52][159] Duvalier sought to create a personality cult, identifying himself withBaron Samedi, one of theloa (orlwa), or spirits, ofHaitian Vodou. Despite the well-publicized abuses under his rule, Duvalier's firm anti-Communism earned him the support of the Americans, who furnished the country with aid.[159][162]
In 1971, Duvalier died, and he was succeeded by his sonJean-Claude Duvalier, nicknamed 'Baby Doc', who ruled until 1986.[163][159] He largely continued his father's policies, though curbed some of the worst excesses in order to court international respectability.[52] Tourism, which had nosedived in Papa Doc's time, again became a growing industry.[164] However, as the economy continued to decline, Baby Doc's grip on power began to weaken. Haiti's pig population was slaughtered following an outbreak of swine fever in the late 1970s, causing hardship to rural communities who used them as an investment.[52][165] The opposition became more vocal, bolstered by a visit to the country byPope John Paul II in 1983, who publicly lambasted the president.[166] Demonstrations occurred in Gonaïves in 1985 which then spread across the country; under pressure from the United States, Duvalier left the country in February 1986.[167]
In total, roughly 40,000 to 60,000 Haitians are estimated to have been killed during the reign of the Duvaliers.[168] Through the use of his intimidation tactics and executions, many intellectual Haitians had fled, leaving the country with a massive brain-drain from which it has yet to recover.[169]
Avril transferred power to the army chief of staff, Gen.Hérard Abraham, on 10 March 1990. Abraham gave up power three days later, becoming the only military leader in Haiti during the twentieth century to voluntarily give up power. Abraham later helped to secure the1990–91 Haitian general election.[citation needed]
In December 1990, Jean-Bertrand Aristide was elected president in theHaitian general election. However, his ambitious reformist agenda worried the elites, and in September of the following year he was overthrown by the military, led byRaoul Cédras, in the1991 Haitian coup d'état.[52][176] Amidst the continuing turmoil many Haitians attempted to flee the country.[159][52]
In September 1994, the United States negotiated the departure of Haiti's military leaders and the peaceful entry of 20,000 US troops underOperation Uphold Democracy.[159] This enabled the restoration of the democratically elected Jean-Bertrand Aristide as president, who returned to Haiti in October to complete his term.[177][178] As part of the deal Aristide had to implement free market reforms in an attempt to improve the Haitian economy, with mixed results.[179][52] In November 1994,Hurricane Gordon brushed Haiti, dumping heavyrain and creatingflash flooding that triggered mudslides. Gordon killed an estimated 1,122 people, although some estimates go as high as 2,200.[180][181]
Elections were held in 1995 which were won byRené Préval, gaining 88% of the popular vote, albeit on a low turnout.[182][183][52] Aristide subsequently formed his own party,Fanmi Lavalas, and political deadlock ensued; theNovember 2000 election returned Aristide to the presidency with 92% of the vote.[184] The election had been boycotted by the opposition, then organized into theConvergence Démocratique, over a dispute in theMay legislative elections. In subsequent years, there was increasing violence between rival political factions andhuman rights abuses.[185][186] Aristide spent years negotiating with the Convergence Démocratique on new elections, but the Convergence's inability to develop a sufficient electoral base made elections unattractive.[citation needed]
In 2004,an anti-Aristide revolt began in northern Haiti. The rebellion eventually reached the capital, and Aristide was forced into exile.[185][52] The precise nature of the events are disputed; some, including Aristide and his bodyguard, Franz Gabriel, stated that he was the victim of a "newcoup d'état or modern kidnapping" by U.S. forces.[185][187][188] These charges were denied by the US government.[189][185] As political violence and crime continued to grow, aUnited Nations Stabilisation Mission (MINUSTAH) was brought in to maintain order.[190] However, MINUSTAH proved controversial, since their periodically heavy-handed approach to maintaining law and order and several instances of abuses, including the alleged sexual abuse of civilians, provoked resentment and distrust among ordinary Haitians.[191][192][52]
Amidst the continuing political chaos, a series of natural disasters hit Haiti. In 2004,Tropical Storm Jeanne skimmed the north coast, leaving 3,006 people dead in flooding andmudslides, mostly in the city ofGonaïves.[194] In 2008, Haiti was again struck by tropical storms;Tropical Storm Fay,Hurricane Gustav,Hurricane Hanna andHurricane Ike all produced heavy winds and rain, resulting in 331 deaths and about 800,000 in need of humanitarian aid.[195] The state of affairs produced by these storms was intensified by already high food and fuel prices that had caused a food crisis and political unrest in April 2008.[196][197][52]
TheHaitian National Palace, located in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, heavily damaged after theearthquake of 2010. This was originally a two-story structure; the second story completely collapsed.
On 12 January 2010, at 4:53 pm local time, Haiti was struck by amagnitude-7.0earthquake. This was the country's most severe earthquake in over 200 years.[198] The earthquake was reported to have left between 160,000 and 300,000 people dead and up to 1.6 million homeless, making it one of thedeadliest natural disasters ever recorded.[199][200] It is also one of the deadliest earthquakes ever recorded.[201] The situation was exacerbated by a subsequent massivecholera outbreak that was triggered when cholera-infected waste from aUnited Nations peacekeeping station contaminated the country's main river, theArtibonite.[190][202][203] In 2017, it was reported that roughly 10,000 Haitians had died and nearly a million had been made ill. After years of denial, the United Nations apologized in 2016, but as of 2017[update], they have refused to acknowledge fault, thus avoiding financial responsibility.[204]
General elections had been planned for January 2010 but were postponed due to the earthquake.[52]Elections were held on 28 November 2010 for the senate, the parliament and the first round of the presidential elections. The run-off betweenMichel Martelly andMirlande Manigat took place on 20 March 2011, and preliminary results, released on 4 April, named Michel Martelly the winner.[205][206] In 2011, both former dictator Jean-Claude Duvalier and Jean-Bertrand Aristide returned to Haiti; attempts to try Duvalier for crimes committed under his rule were shelved following his death in 2014.[207][208][209][205] In 2013, the Haitian government called for European governments to payreparations for slavery and establish an official commission for the settlement of past wrongdoings.[210][211] Meanwhile, after continuing political wrangling with the opposition and allegations of electoral fraud, Martelly agreed to step down in 2016 without a successor in place.[205][212] After numerous postponements, partly owing to the effects of devastatingHurricane Matthew,elections were held in November 2016.[213][214] The victor,Jovenel Moïse of theHaitian Tèt Kale Party, was sworn in as president in 2017.[215][216]Protests began on 7 July 2018, in response to increased fuel prices. Over time these protests evolved into demands for the resignation of president Moïse.[217]
On 7 July 2021, President Moïse wasassassinated in an attack on his private residence, and First LadyMartine Moïse was hospitalized.[218] Amid the political crisis, the government of Haiti installedAriel Henry as the acting prime minister on 20 July 2021.[219][220] On 14 August 2021, Haiti sufferedanother huge earthquake, with many casualties.[221] The earthquake has also damaged Haiti's economic conditions and led to a rise ingang violence which by September 2021 had escalated to a long-lasting full-blowngang war and other violent crimes within the country.[222][223] As of March 2022, Haiti still had no president, no parliamentary quorum, and a dysfunctional high court due to a lack of judges.[219] In 2022,protests against the government andrising fuel prices intensified.[224][225]
In 2023, kidnapping jumped 72% from the first quarter of the previous year.[226] Doctors, lawyers, and other wealthy members of society were kidnapped and held for ransom.[227] Many victims were killed when ransom demands were not met, leading those with the means to do so to flee the country, further hampering efforts to pull the country out of the crisis.[227] It is estimated that amidst the crisis up to 20% of qualified medical staff had left Haiti by the end of 2023.[228]
In March 2024, Ariel Henry was prevented by gangs from returning to Haiti, following a visit toKenya.[229] Henry agreed to resign once a transitional government had been formed. As of that month, nearly half of Haiti's population was living underacute food insecurity, according to theWorld Food Programme.[25] On 25 April 2024, theTransitional Presidential Council took over the Governance of Haiti and is scheduled to stay in power until 2026.[230]Michel Patrick Boisvert was named interim prime minister.[230] On 3 June 2024, the council swore inGarry Conille as acting prime minister.[231] On 10 November 2024,Alix Didier Fils-Aimé replaced Conille as acting prime minister.[232]
Haiti forms the western three-eighths ofHispaniola, the second largest island in theGreater Antilles. At 27,750 km2 (10,710 sq mi) Haiti is the third largest country in the Caribbean behindCuba and theDominican Republic, the latter sharing a 360-kilometer (224 mi)border with Haiti. The country has a roughly horseshoe shape and because of this it has a disproportionately long coastline, second in length (1,771 km or 1,100 mi) behind Cuba in the Greater Antilles.[233][234]
Haiti is the most mountainous country in the Caribbean, its terrain consists of mountains interspersed with small coastal plains and river valleys.[235] The climate is tropical, with some variation depending on altitude. The highest point isPic la Selle, at 2,680 meters (8,793 ft).[236][235][52]
The northern region orMarien Region consists of theMassif du Nord (Northern Massif) and thePlaine du Nord (Northern Plain). TheMassif du Nord is an extension of theCordillera Central in the Dominican Republic.[52] It begins at Haiti's eastern border, north of theGuayamouc River, and extends to the northwest through the northern peninsula. The lowlands of thePlaine du Nord lie along the northern border with the Dominican Republic, between theMassif du Nord and the North Atlantic Ocean.
The central region orArtibonite Region consists of two plains and two sets of mountain ranges. ThePlateau Central (Central Plateau) extends along both sides of the Guayamouc River, south of theMassif du Nord. It runs from the southeast to the northwest. To the southwest of thePlateau Central are theMontagnes Noires, whose most northwestern part merges with theMassif du Nord. Haiti's most important valley in terms of crops is the Plaine de l'Artibonite, which lies between the Montagnes Noires and the Chaîne des Matheux.[52] This region supports the country's longest river, theRiviere l'Artibonite, which begins in the western region of the Dominican Republic and continues for most of its length through central Haiti, where it then empties into theGolfe de la Gonâve.[52] Also in this valley lies Haiti's second largest lake,Lac de Péligre, formed as a result of the construction of thePéligre Dam in the mid-1950s.[237]
The southern region orXaragua Region consists of thePlaine du Cul-de-Sac (the southeast) and the mountainous southern peninsula (theTiburon Peninsula). The Plaine du Cul-de-Sac is a natural depression that harbors the country's saline lakes, such asTrou Caïman and Haiti's largest lake,Étang Saumatre. TheChaîne de la Selle mountain range – an extension of the southern mountain chain of the Dominican Republic (the Sierra de Baoruco) – extends from the Massif de la Selle in the east to theMassif de la Hotte in the west.[52]
Haiti also includes several offshore islands. The island ofTortuga is located off the coast of northern Haiti. Thearrondissement ofLa Gonâve is located on the island of the same name, in theGolfe de la Gonâve; Haiti's largest island, Gonâve is moderately populated by rural villagers.Île à Vache is located off the southwest coast; also part of Haiti are theCayemites, located in the Gulf of Gonâve north ofPestel.Navassa Island, located 40 nautical miles (46 mi; 74 km) west ofJérémie on the south westpeninsula of Haiti,[238] is subject to an ongoing territorial dispute with the United States, who currently administer the island.[239]
Climate
Köppen climate types of Haiti
Haiti's climate is tropical with some variation depending on altitude.[235] Port-au-Prince ranges in January from an average minimum of 23 °C (73.4 °F) to an average maximum of 31 °C (87.8 °F); in July, from 25–35 °C (77–95 °F). The rainfall pattern is varied, with rain heavier in some of the lowlands and the northern and eastern slopes of the mountains. Haiti's dry season occurs from November to January.
Port-au-Prince receives an average annual rainfall of 1,370 mm (53.9 in). There are two rainy seasons, April–June and October–November. Haiti is subject to periodic droughts and floods, made more severe by deforestation. Hurricanes are a menace, and the country is also prone to flooding and earthquakes.[235]
A 2007 earthquake hazard study, noted that the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault zone could be at the end of its seismic cycle and concluded that a worst-case forecast would involve a 7.2 Mw earthquake, similar in size to the1692 Jamaica earthquake.[242] A study team performing a hazard assessment of the fault system recommended "high priority" historical geologic rupture studies, as the fault was fully locked and had recorded few earthquakes in the preceding 40 years.[243] The magnitude 7.02010 Haiti earthquake happened on this fault zone on 12 January 2010.[244]
Haiti has no currently active volcanoes. "In the Terre-Neuve Mountains, about 12 kilometers from the Eaux Boynes, small intrusions at least as late asOligocene and probably ofMiocene age are known. No other volcanic activity of as late a date is known near any of the other warm springs."[246]
Haiti's border with theDominican Republic in 2002, showing the extent of deforestation on the Haitian side (left)
Thesoil erosion released from the uppercatchments anddeforestation have caused periodic and severe flooding, as experienced, for example, on 17 September 2004. Earlier in May that year, floods had killed over 3,000 people on Haiti's southern border with the Dominican Republic.[247]
Haiti's forests covered 60% of the country as recently as 50 years ago, but that has been halved to a current estimate of 30% tree cover. This estimate poses a stark difference from the erroneous figure of 2% which has been oft-cited in discourse concerning the country's environmental condition.[248] Haiti had a 2019Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.01/10, ranking it 137th globally out of 172 countries.[249]
Most mammal species are not native, having been brought to the island since colonial times.[252] However, there are various nativebat species, as well as the endemicHispaniolan hutia andHispaniolan solenodon.[252] Whale and dolphin species can also be found off Haiti's coast.
The government of Haiti is asemi-presidential republic, a multiparty system wherein thepresident of Haiti is head of state and elected directly by popularelections held every five years.[52][255] Theprime minister of Haiti acts as head of government and is appointed by the president, chosen from the majority party in the National Assembly.[52] Executive power is exercised by the president and prime minister who together constitute the government.[256]
Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of theNational Assembly of Haiti, theSenate (Sénat) and theChamber of Deputies (Chambre des Députés).[52][235] The government is organizedunitarily, thus the central governmentdelegates powers to the departments without a constitutional need for consent. The current structure of Haiti's political system was set forth in theConstitution of Haiti on 29 March 1987.[235]
Haitian politics have been contentious: since independence, Haiti has suffered 32coups.[257] Haiti is the only country in the Western Hemisphere to undergo a successfulslave revolution; however, a long history of oppression by dictators such asFrançois Duvalier and his sonJean-Claude Duvalier has markedly affected the republic's governance and society. Since the end of the Duvalier era Haiti has been transitioning to a democratic system.[52]
In February 2012, Haiti signaled it would seek to upgrade its observer status to full associate member status of theAfrican Union (AU).[261] The AU was reported to be planning to upgrade Haiti's status from observer to associate at its June 2013 summit[262] but the application had still not been ratified by May 2016.[263]
Haiti has a strong military history dating to the pre-independence struggle. TheIndigenous Army is essential in the construction of the state the management of land and public finances. Up to the 20th century, every Haitian president was an officer in the army. During the US intervention, the army was remodeled as Gendarmerie d'Haiti and later on as Force Armée d'Haiti (FAdH). In the early 1990s, the army was unconstitutionally decommissioned and replaced by the Haitian National Police (PNH). In 2018, Président Jovenel Moise reactivated the FAdH.[citation needed]
Haiti has consistently ranked among the most corrupt countries in the world on theCorruption Perceptions Index.[269] According to a 2006 report by theCorruption Perceptions Index, there is a strong correlation between corruption and poverty in Haiti. The republic ranked first of all countries surveyed for levels of perceived domestic corruption.[270] It is estimated that President"Baby Doc" Duvalier, his wifeMichele, and their agents stole US $504 million from the treasury between 1971 and 1986.[271] Similarly, after the Haitian Army folded in 1995, the Haitian National Police (HNP) gained sole power of authority on the Haitian citizens. Many Haitians as well as observers believe that this monopolized power could have given way to a corrupt police force.[272] Some media outlets alleged that millions were stolen by former presidentJean-Bertrand Aristide.[273][274][275][276] The BBC also describedpyramid schemes, in which Haitians lost hundreds of millions in 2002, as the "only real economic initiative" of the Aristide years.[277]
Conversely, according to the 2013United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) report, murder rates (10.2 per 100,000) are farbelow the regional average (26 per 100,000); less than1/4 that of Jamaica (39.3 per 100,000) and nearly1/2 that of the Dominican Republic (22.1 per 100,000), making it among the safer countries in the region.[278][279] In large part, this is due to the country's ability to fulfil a pledge by increasing its national police yearly by 50%, a four-year initiative that was started in 2012. In addition to the yearly recruits, the Haitian National Police (HNP) has been using innovative technologies to crack down on crime. A notable bust in recent years[when?] led to the dismantlement of the largest kidnapping ring in the country with the use of an advanced software program developed by aWest Point-trained Haitian official that proved to be so effective that it has led to its foreign advisers to make inquiries.[280][281]
In 2010, theNew York City Police Department (NYPD) sent a team of officers to Haiti to assist in the rebuilding of its police force with special training in investigative techniques, anti-kidnapping strategies and community outreach. It has also helped the HNP set up a police unit inDelmas, a neighborhood of Port-au-Prince.[282][283][284][285]
In 2012 and 2013, 150 HNP officers received specialized training funded by the US government, which also contributed to the infrastructure and communications support by upgrading radio capacity and constructing new police stations from the most violent-prone neighborhoods ofCité Soleil andGrande Ravine in Port-au-Prince to the new northern industrial park atCaracol.[283]
According to the UN Haiti faces a worsening crisis marked by extreme violence, political instability, and a deepening humanitarian emergency. UN Special RepresentativeVirginia Gamba condemned the use of children by armed gangs, highlightingsexual violence as a weapon of war. The removal of interim Prime Minister Garry Conille has further destabilized governance. Armed groups have targeted schools and hospitals, displacing thousands and leaving 300,000 children without education. The UN calls for urgent humanitarian aid, enhanced security efforts, and political unity to address the crisis, as over 2.7 million people live under gang control.[286][287]
Haitian penitentiary system
Port-au-Princepenitentiary is home to half of Haiti's prisoners. The prison has a capacity of 1,200detainees but as of November 2017[update] the penitentiary was obliged to keep 4,359 detainees, a 363% occupancy level.[288] The inability to receive sufficient funds has caused deadly cases ofmalnutrition, combined with the tight living conditions, increases the risk of infectious diseases such astuberculosis.[288]
Haitian law states that once arrested, one must go before a judge within 48 hours; however, this is very rare.[289] Unless families are able to provide the necessary funds for inmates to appear before a judge, there is a very slim chance the inmate would have a trial, on average, within 10 years.[290]
In confined living spaces for 22–23 hours a day, inmates are not provided with latrines and are forced todefecate into plastic bags. These conditions were considered inhumane by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights in 2008.[291]
On 3 March 2024, armed gangs stormed the main prison in Port-au-Prince and around 3700 inmates escaped, while 12 people were killed.[292]
Haiti's per capitaGDP is $1,800 and its GDP is $19.97 billion (2017 estimates).[235] The country uses theHaitian gourde as its currency. Despite its tourism industry, Haiti is one of the poorest countries in the Americas, with corruption, political instability, poor infrastructure, lack of health care and lack of education cited as the main causes.[235] Unemployment is high and many Haitians seek to emigrate. Trade declined dramatically after the 2010 earthquake and subsequentoutbreak of cholera, with the country'spurchasing power parity GDP falling by 8% (from US$12.15 billion to US$11.18 billion).[4] Haiti ranked 145th of 182 countries in the 2010 United NationsHuman Development Index, with 57.3% of the population being deprived in at least three of the HDI's poverty measures.[293]
Following the disputed 2000 election and accusations about President Aristide's rule,[294] US aid to the Haitian government was cut off between 2001 and 2004.[295] After Aristide's departure in 2004, aid was restored and theBrazilian army led aUnited Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti peacekeeping operation. After almost four years of recession, the economy grew by 1.5% in 2005.[296] In September 2009, Haiti met the conditions set out by theIMF andWorld Bank'sHeavily Indebted Poor Countries program to qualify for cancellation of its external debt.[297]
In 2015, more than 90 percent of the government's budget came from an agreement withPetrocaribe, a Venezuela-led oil alliance.[298]
Haiti received more than US$4 billion in aid from 1990 to 2003, including US$1.5 billion from the United States.[299] The largest donor is the US, followed byCanada and theEuropean Union.[300] In January 2010, following the earthquake, US PresidentBarack Obama promised US$1.15 billion in assistance.[301] The European Union pledged more than €400 million (US$616 million).[302] NeighboringDominican Republic has also provided extensive humanitarian aid to Haiti, including the funding and construction of a public university,[303] human capital, free healthcare services in the border region, and logistical support after the 2010 earthquake.[304]
The United Nations states that US$13.34 billion has been earmarked for post-earthquake reconstruction through 2020, though two years after the 2010 quake, less than half of that amount had actually been released. As of 2015[update], the US government has allocated US$4 billion, US$3 billion has already been spent, and the rest is dedicated to longer-term projects.[305]
Trade
According to the 2015 CIAWorld Factbook, Haiti's main import partners are: Dominican Republic 35%, US 26.8%, Netherlands Antilles 8.7%, China 7% (est. 2013). Haiti's main export partner is the US 83.5% (est. 2013).[306] Haiti had a trade deficit of US$3 billion in 2011, or 41% of GDP.[307]
Haiti relies heavily on an oil alliance withPetrocaribe for much of its energy requirements. In recent years, hydroelectric, solar and wind energy have been explored as possible sustainable energy sources.[308]
Power plant in Port-au-Prince
As of 2017, among all the countries in the Americas, Haiti is producing the least energy. Less than a quarter of the country has electric coverage.[309] Most regions of Haiti that do have energy are powered by generators. These generators are often expensive and produce a lot of pollution. The areas that do get electricity experience power cuts on a daily basis, and some areas are limited to 12 hours of electricity a day. Electricity is provided by a small number of independent companies: Sogener, E-power, and Haytrac.[310] There is nonational electricity grid.[311] The most common source of energy is wood, along with charcoal. About 4 million metric tons of wood products are consumed yearly.[312] Like charcoal and wood, petroleum is also an important source of energy. Since Haiti cannot produce its own fuel, all fuel is imported. Yearly, around 691,000 tons of oil is imported into the country.[311]
In 2018, a 24-hour electricity project was announced; for this purpose 236 MW needs to installed in Port-au-Prince alone, with an additional 75 MW needed in all other regions. Presently only 27.5% of the population has access to electricity; moreover, the national energy agency l'Électricité d'Haïti (Ed'H) is only able to meet 62% of overall electricity demand.[313]
Haiti suffers from a shortage of skilled labor, widespread unemployment, and underemployment. Most Haitians in the labor force have informal jobs. Three-quarters of the population lives on US$2 or less per day.[314]
Remittances from Haitians living abroad are the primary source of foreign exchange, equaling one-fifth (20%) of GDP and more than five times the earnings from exports as of 2012.[315] In 2004, 80% or more of college graduates from Haiti were living abroad.[316]
Occasionally, families who are unable to care for children may send them to live with a wealthier family as arestavek, orhouse servant. In return the family are supposed to ensure that the child is educated and provided with food and shelter; however, the system is open to abuse and has proved controversial, with some likening it to child slavery.[317][318]
Real estate
In rural areas, people often live in wooden huts with corrugated iron roofs. Outhouses are located in back of the huts. In Port-au-Prince, colorfulshantytowns surround the central city and go up the mountainsides.[319]
The middle and upper classes live in suburbs, or in the central part of the bigger cities in apartments, where there is urban planning. Many of the houses they live in are like miniature fortresses, located behind walls embedded with metal spikes, barbed wire, broken glass, and sometimes all three. The houses have backup generators, because the electrical grid is unreliable. Some even have rooftop reservoirs for water.[319]
Haiti is the world's leading producer ofvetiver, a root plant used to make luxury perfumes, essential oils and fragrances, providing for half the world's supply.[320][321][322] Roughly 40–50% of Haitians work in the agricultural sector.[235][323] However, according to soil surveys by the United States Department of Agriculture in the early 1980s, only 11.3 percent of the land was highly suitable for crops. Haiti relies upon imports for half its food needs and 80% of its rice.[323]
TheHaitian gourde (HTG) is the national currency. The "Haitian dollar" equates to 5 gourdes (goud).[citation needed] The vast majority of the business sector and individuals will also accept US dollars, though at the outdoor markets gourdes may be preferred. Locals may refer to the USD as "dollar américain" (dola ameriken) or "dollar US" (pronouncedoo-es).[326]
The tourism market in Haiti is undeveloped and the government is heavily promoting this sector. Haiti has many of the features that attract tourists to other Caribbean destinations, such as white sand beaches, mountainous scenery and a year-round warm climate. However, the country's poor image overseas, at times exaggerated, has hampered the development of this sector.[52] In 2014, the country received 1,250,000 tourists (mostly from cruise ships), and the industry generated US$200 million in 2014.[citation needed]
On 21 October 2012, Haitian PresidentMichel Martelly, US Secretary of StateHillary Clinton, Bill Clinton,Richard Branson,Ben Stiller andSean Penn inaugurated the 240-hectare (600-acre) Caracol industrial park, the largest in theCaribbean.[333] The project cost US$300 million and included a 10-megawattpower plant, a water-treatment plant and worker housing.[333] The plan for the park pre-dated the 2010 earthquake but was fast-tracked as part of US foreign aid strategy to help Haiti recover.[334] The park was part of a "master plan" for Haiti's North and North-East departments, including the expansion of theCap-Haïtien International Airport to accommodate large international flights, the construction of an international seaport inFort-Liberté and the opening of the $50 million Roi Henri Christophe Campus of a new university in Limonade (near Cap-Haïtien) on 12 January 2012.[335]
In 2012,USAID believed the park had the potential to create as many as 65,000 jobs once fully developed.[336][337]South Korean clothing manufacturerSae-A Trading Co. Ltd, the park's only major tenant, created 5,000 permanent jobs out of the 20,000 it had projected and promised to build 5,000 houses yet only 750 homes had been built near Caracol by 2014.[334]
Ten years later, the park was considered to have failed to uphold its promise to deliver the transformation the Clintons had promised.[338] The US invested tens of millions of dollars into the port project but eventually abandoned it.[338] In order to establish the park, hundreds of families of small farmers had to be removed from the land, approximately 3,500 people overall.[339] An audit by theUnited States Government Accountability Office uncovered that the port project lacked "staff with technical expertise in planning, construction, and oversight of a port" and revealed thatUSAid hadn't constructed a port anywhere since the 1970s.[338] A USAid feasibility study in 2015 found that "a new port was not viable for a variety of technical, environmental and economic reasons", that the US was short US$72m in funds to cover the majority of the projected costs, and that private companies USAid had wanted to attract "had no interest in supporting the construction of a new port in northern Haiti".[338]
Haiti has two main highways that run from one end of the country to the other. The northern highway, Route Nationale No. 1 (National Highway One), originates in Port-au-Prince, winding through the coastal towns ofMontrouis andGonaïves, before reaching its terminus at the northern portCap-Haïtien. The southern highway, Route Nationale No. 2, links Port-au-Prince withLes Cayes viaLéogâne andPetit-Goâve. The state of Haiti's roads are generally poor, many being potholed and becoming impassable in rough weather.[52]
The port at Port-au-Prince,Port international de Port-au-Prince, has more registered shipping than any of the other dozen ports in the country. The port's facilities includecranes, largeberths, andwarehouses, but these facilities are not in good condition. The port is underused, possibly due to the substantially high port fees. The port ofSaint-Marc is currently the preferred port of entry for consumer goods.[citation needed]
In the past, Haiti used rail transport; however, the rail infrastructure was poorly maintained when in use and cost of rehabilitation is beyond the means of the Haitian economy. In 2018 the Regional Development Council of the Dominican Republic proposed a "trans-Hispaniola" railway between both countries.[340]
Toussaint Louverture International Airport, located ten kilometers (six miles) north-northeast of Port-au-Prince proper in the commune ofTabarre, is the primary hub for entry and exit into the country. It has Haiti's mainjetway, and along withCap-Haïtien International Airport handles the vast majority of the country's international flights. Cities such as Jacmel, Jérémie, Les Cayes, and Port-de-Paix have smaller, less accessible airports that are serviced byregional airlines and private aircraft.[citation needed]
In 2013, plans for the development of an international airport on Île-à-Vache were introduced by the prime minister.[341]
In May 2024, the airport reopened following three months closure following violence, and is expected to help ease a shortage of medications and basic supplies.[342][343]
Tap tap buses are colorfully painted buses or pick-up trucks that serve as shared taxis. The "tap tap" name comes from the sound of passengers tapping on the metal bus body to indicate they want off.[344] These vehicles for hire are often privately owned and extensively decorated. They follow fixed routes, do not leave until filled with passengers, and riders can usually disembark at any point. The decorations are a typically Haitian form of art.[345]
In Haiti, communications include the radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet. Haiti ranked last among North American countries in the World Economic Forum's Network Readiness Index (NRI) – an indicator for determining the development level of a country's information and communication technologies. Haiti ranked number 143 out of 148 overall in the 2014 NRI ranking, down from 141 in 2013.[346]
Haiti faces key challenges in thewater supply andsanitationsector. Notably, access to public services is very low, their quality is inadequate and public institutions remain very weak despite foreign aid and the government's declared intent to strengthen the sector's institutions. Foreign and HaitianNGOs play an important role in the sector, especially in rural and urban slum areas.[citation needed]
In 2018, Haiti's population was estimated to be about 10,788,000.[235] In 2006, half of the population was younger than age 20.[347] In 1950, the first formal census gave a total population of 3.1 million.[348] Haiti averages approximately 350 people per square kilometer (910 people/sq mi), with its population concentrated most heavily in urban areas, coastal plains, and valleys.
Under colonial rule,Haitian mulattoes were generally privileged above the black majority, though they possessed fewer rights than the white population. Following the country's independence, they became the nation's social elite. Numerous leaders throughout Haiti's history have been mulattoes. During this time, the enslaved persons and theaffranchis were given limited opportunities toward education, income, and occupations, but even after gaining independence, the social structure remains a legacy today as the disparity between the upper and lower classes have not been reformed significantly since the colonial days.[356] Making up 5% of the nation's population, mulattoes have retained their preeminence, evident in the political, economic, social and cultural hierarchy in Haiti.[357] As a result, the elite class today consists of a small group of influential people who are generally light in color.[358]
The 2018CIA World Factbook reported that 55% of Haitians wereCatholics and 29% wereProtestants (Baptist 15.4%, Pentecostal 7.9%,Seventh-day Adventist 3%, Methodist 1.5%, other 0.7%). Other sources put the Protestant population higher, suggesting that it might have formed one-third of the population in 2001.[360] Like other countries in Latin America, Haiti has witnessed a general Protestant expansion, which is largelyEvangelical andPentecostal in nature.[361][362][363]
Vodou, a religion with West African roots similar to those ofCuba andBrazil, is formally practiced by 2.1% of the population; however, it is estimated that 50-80% of Haitians incorporate some elements of Vodou belief or practices into their religion, particularly with Catholicism. This reflect Vodou's colonial origins, when enslaved persons were obliged to disguise their traditionalloa (lwa), or spirits, asCatholic saints, as part of a process calledsyncretism. As such, it is difficult to estimate the number of Vodouists in Haiti,[364][365] especially given the legacy of historic persecution and misrepresentation in popular media and culture, as well as modern stigmatization among segments of the growing Protestant population. Nonetheless, Vodou was officially recognized by the Haitian government in 2003.[235]
Reflecting the ubiquity of Vodou culture and beliefs, while many Catholics and Protestants in Haiti denounce Vodou asdevil worship, they do not deny the power or existence of its spirits; rather, they are regarded as "evil" and "satanic" adversaries that require intervention throughChristian prayer. Protestants view Catholic veneration of saints asidol worship, and some Protestants would often destroy statues and other Catholic paraphernalia.[366]
The two official languages of Haiti areFrench andHaitian Creole. French is the principal written and administratively authorized language (as well as the main language of the press) and is spoken by 42% ofHaitians.[367][368] It is spoken by all educated Haitians, is the medium of instruction in most schools, and is used in the business sector. It is also used in ceremonial events such as weddings, graduations and church Masses. Haiti is one of two independent nations in the Americas (along with Canada) to designate French as anofficial language; the other French-speaking areas are alloverseasdépartements, orcollectivités, of France, such asFrench Guiana. Haitian Creole is spoken by nearly all of the Haitian population. French, the base language for Haitian Creole, is popular among the Haitian elite and upper classes. French is also popular in the business sector, and to a far lesser degree, English due toAmerican influence. Spanish is spoken by some Haitians who live along theHaitian-Dominican border.[369] English and Spanish may also be spoken by Haitian deportees from the United States and various Latin American countries. Overall, about 90–95% of Haitians only speak Haitian Creole and French fluently, with over half only knowing Creole.[370]
Haitian Creole,[371] locally calledKreyòl,[372] has recently undergone standardization and is spoken by virtually the entire population.[373] One of theFrench-based creole languages, Haitian Creole has a vocabulary overwhelmingly derived from French, but its grammar resembles that of some West African languages. It also has influences fromTaino,Spanish, andPortuguese.[374] Haitian Creole is related to the other French creoles, and in particular to theAntillean andLouisiana Creole variants.[citation needed]
The educational system of Haiti is based on theFrench system. Higher education, under the responsibility of the Ministry of Education,[381] is provided by universities and other public and private institutions.[382]
More than 80% of primary schools are privately managed by nongovernmental organizations, churches, communities, and for-profit operators, with minimal government oversight.[383] According to the 2013 Millennium Development Goals Report, Haiti has steadily boosted net enrollment rate in primary education from 47% in 1993 to 88% in 2011, achieving equal participation of boys and girls in education.[384] Charity organizations, includingFood for the Poor andHaitian Health Foundation, are building schools for children and providing necessary school supplies.According to the 2015World Factbook, Haiti's literacy rate is 60.7%.[citation needed]
Many reformers have advocated the creation of a free, public and universal education system for all primary school-age students in Haiti. TheInter-American Development Bank estimates that the government will need at least US$3 billion to create an adequately funded system.[385]
As of 2012[update], 60% of children in Haiti under the age of 10 werevaccinated,[387][388] compared to 93–95% in other countries.[389] Recently there have been mass vaccination campaigns claiming to vaccinate as many as 91% of a target population against specific diseases (measles and rubella in this case).[390] Most people have no transportation or access toHaitian hospitals.[391]
Roughly 75% of Haitian households lack running water. Unsafe water, along with inadequate housing and unsanitary living conditions, contributes to the high incidence of infectious diseases. There is a chronic shortage of health care personnel and hospitals lack resources, a situation that became readily apparent after the January 2010 earthquake.[397] Theinfant mortality rate in Haiti in 2019 was 48.2 deaths per 1,000 live births, compared to 5.6 per 1,000 in the United States.[398]
Haiti has a lasting and unique cultural identity, blending traditional French and African customs, mixed with sizable acquirements from the Spanish and indigenous Taíno cultures.[401]
Haitian art isdistinctive, particularly through its paintings and sculptures.[401][402][403] Brilliant colors,naïve perspectives, and sly humor characterizeHaitian art. Frequent subjects in Haitian art include big, foods, landscapes, market activities, jungle animals, rituals, dances, and gods. As a result of a deep history and strong African ties, symbols take on great meaning within Haitian society. Many artists cluster in 'schools' of painting, such as the Cap-Haïtien school, which features depictions of daily life in the city, the Jacmel School, which reflects the steep mountains and bays of that coastal town, or the Saint-Soleil School, which is characterized by abstracted human forms and is heavily influenced by Vodou symbolism.[citation needed]
In the 1920s theindigéniste movement gained international acclaim, with its expressionist paintings inspired by Haiti's culture and African roots. Notable painters of this movement includeHector Hyppolite, Philomé Oban andPréfète Duffaut.[404] Some notable artists of more recent times includeEdouard Duval-Carrié, Frantz Zéphirin, Leroy Exil,Prosper Pierre Louis andLouisiane Saint Fleurant.[404] Sculpture is also practiced in Haiti; noted artists in this form include George Liautaud andSerge Jolimeau.[405]
Haitian music combines a wide range of influences drawn from the many people who have settled here. It reflects French, African and Spanish elements and others who have inhabited the island ofHispaniola, and minor nativeTaino influences. Styles of music unique to Haitian culture include music derived fromVodou ceremonial traditions,Rara parading music,Twoubadouballads,mini-jazz rock bands,Rasin movement,Hip hop kreyòl,méringue,[406] andcompas. Youth attend parties at nightclubs calleddiscos, and attendBal (ball, as in a formal dance).
Compas (konpa)[407] is a complex, ever-changing music that arose from African rhythms and European ballroom dancing, mixed with Haiti's bourgeois culture. It is a refined music, withméringue as its basic rhythm. Haiti had no recorded music until 1937 whenJazz Guignard was recorded non-commercially.[408]
Haiti has always been a literary nation that has produced poetry, novels, and plays of international recognition. TheFrench colonial experience established the French language as the venue of culture and prestige, and since then it has dominated the literary circles and the literary production. However, since the 18th century there has been a sustained effort to write inHaitian Creole. The recognition of Creole as an official language has led to an expansion of novels, poems, and plays in Creole.[409] In 1975,Franketienne was the first to break with the French tradition in fiction with the publication ofDezafi, the first novel written entirely in Haitian Creole.[410] Other well known Haitian authors includeJean Price-Mars,Jacques Roumain,Jacques Stephen Alexis,Marie Vieux-Chauvet, Pierre Clitandre,René Depestre,Edwidge Danticat,Lyonel Trouillot andDany Laferrière.
Cinema
Haiti has a small though growing cinema industry. Well-known directors working primarily in documentary film-making includeRaoul Peck andArnold Antonin. Directors producing fictional films includePatricia Benoît, Wilkenson Bruna and Richard Senecal.
TheHaitian Carnival has been one of the most popular carnivals in the Caribbean. In 2010, the government decided to stage the event in a different city outside Port-au-Prince every year.[418][419] The National Carnival follows the popular Jacmel Carnival, which takes place a week earlier in February or March.[418]
^abcThe National Assembly currently has zero members, with all 30 seats in the Senate and all 119 seats in the Chamber of Deputies vacant since all previous members have served their terms as prescribed by theHaitian Constitution and no election has been held to fill those vacated seats.
^abThe nation was officially founded asHayti in its Declaration of Independence and early prints,[13][14] constitutions,[15] and imperial declarations.[16] Published writings of 1802–1919 in the United States commonly used the nameHayti (e.g.The Blue Book of Hayti (1919), a book with official standing in Haiti). By 1873Haiti was common among titles of US published books as well as in US congressional publications. In all ofFrederick Douglass' publications after 1890, he usedHaiti. As late as 1949, the nameHayti continued to be used in books published in England (e.g.Hayti: 145 Years of Independence—The Bi-Centenary of Port-au-Prince published in London, England in 1949) but by 1950, usage in England had shifted toHaiti.[17]
^The Taínos may have usedBohío as another name for the island.[39][40][41]
^Davies, Arthur (1953). "The Loss of the Santa Maria Christmas Day, 1492".The American Historical Review.58 (4):854–865.doi:10.1086/ahr/58.4.854.ISSN0002-8762.
^Matthewson, Tim (1996). "Jefferson and the Nonrecognition of Haiti".Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society.140 (1):22–48.ISSN0003-049X.JSTOR987274.
^"OAS – Member State: Haiti".oas.org. OAS – Organization of American States: Democracy for peace, security, and development. 1 August 2009.Archived from the original on 22 September 2022. Retrieved23 April 2017.
^Walter E. Kretchik (2016). "1. Haitian Culture and Military Power".Eyewitness to Chaos: Personal Accounts of the Intervention in Haiti, 1994. University of Nebraska Press. p. 6.the French colony's seven thousand plantations to produce 40 percent of France's foreign trade, nearly double the production of all British colonies combined
^Smucker, Glenn R. (December 1989). Richard A. Haggerty (ed.).A Country Study: Haiti. Library of Congress Federal Research Division. Toussaint Louverture.Archived from the original on 2 May 2009. Retrieved2 November 2007.
^"The History of the United States' First Refugee Crisis".Smithsonian Magazine.Archived from the original on 10 June 2022. Retrieved10 June 2022.In spite of all this paranoia, however, South Carolina actually lifted its ban on foreign slaves in 1804, and all those who arrived from Saint-Domingue eventually settled there. According to Dessens, many were even welcomed quite warmly. This was especially true for the 8,000 or so of the 25,000 refugees who shared both skin color and a common religion with their American counterparts.
^Frasier, Flora (2009).Venus of Empire:The Life of Pauline Bonaparte. John Murray.
^abcdefgClammer, Paul (2016),Bradt Travel Guide – Haiti, p. 13.
^Jackson, Maurice; Bacon, Jacqueline (2010)."Fever and Fret: The Haitian Revolution and African American Responses". In Jackson, Maurice; Bacon, Jacqueline (eds.).African Americans and the Haitian Revolution: Selected Essays and Historical Documents. Routledge.ISBN978-1-134-72613-4.Archived from the original on 28 June 2024. Retrieved10 October 2018....the momentous struggle that began in 1791 and yielded the first post-colonial independent black nation and the only nation to gain independence through slave rebellion.
^Clodfelter, Micheal (23 May 2017).Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492–2015, 4th ed. McFarland.ISBN9780786474707.Archived from the original on 28 June 2024. Retrieved18 August 2023.French losses from 1830–51 were 3,336 killed in battle and 92,329 died of wounds or from all other causes. Between 1830 and 1870, 411 French officers were killed and 1,360 were wounded. The toll for the ranks was an estimated 10,000 killed and 35,000 wounded in all French colonial campaigns. A few thousand from this number died in Mexico or Indochina, but the great bulk met their deaths in Algeria. Disease took an even greater toll. One estimate puts total French and Foreign Legion deaths from battle and disease for the entire century at 110,000.
^Scheina.Latin America's Wars. Potomac Books. p. 1772.
^Wilson, Colin; Wilson, Damon (2015).An End To Murder: Human beings have always been cruel, savage and murderous. Is all that about to change?.
^Christer Petley,White Fury: A Jamaican Slaveholder and the Age of REvolution (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018), p. 182.
^Peguero, Valentina (November 1998). "Teaching the Haitian Revolution: Its Place in Western and Modern World History".The History Teacher.32 (1):33–41.doi:10.2307/494418.JSTOR494418.S2CID141205471.
^Bushnell, David; Lester Langley, eds. (2008).Simón Bolívar: essays on the life and legacy of the liberator. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 5.ISBN978-0-7425-5619-5.
^"La première ambassade française en Haïti".Menu Contenu Plan du siteAmbassade de France à Port-au-Prince (in French). Government of France.Archived from the original on 8 April 2022. Retrieved27 October 2017.
^M. Degros, Création des postes diplomatiques et consulaires, Revue d'histoire diplomatique, 1986; in French
^J-F. Brière, Haïti et la France, 1804–1848 : le rêve brisé, Paris, Karthala 2008; in French
^Hayes, Carlton H.; Edward M. Sait (December 1912). "Record of Political Events".Political Science Quarterly.27 (4): 752.doi:10.2307/2141264.JSTOR2141264.
^Munro, Dana G. (1969). "The American Withdrawal from Haiti, 1929–1934".The Hispanic American Historical Review.49 (1):1–26.doi:10.2307/2511314.JSTOR2511314.
^"'Things in Haiti must change,' pope tells Duvalier".The Spokesman-Review. Spokane, Washington. Associated Press. 10 March 1983. p. 15.ISSN1064-7317.Archived from the original on 20 September 2022. Retrieved9 September 2019.The Roman Catholic pontiff responded with a stern lecture to the island country's tiny moneyed elite, telling the 31-year-old president-for-life of the Western Hemisphere's poorest country, 'Things must change in Haiti.' ... 'I call on all those who have power, riches and culture so that they can understand the serious and urgent responsibility to help their brothers and sisters,' [Pope John Paul II] said.
^Trouillot, Michel-Rolph (1990).Haiti, State Against Nation: The Origins and Legacy of Duvalierism. New York: Monthly Review Press. p. 221.ISBN0853457557.
^Whitney, Kathleen Marie (1996), "Sin, Fraph, and the CIA: U.S. Covert Action in Haiti",Southwestern Journal of Law and Trade in the Americas, Vol. 3, Issue 2 (1996), pp. 303–32, esp. p. 319.
^Anthony Payne and Paul K. Sutton (1993),Modern Caribbean politics. JHU Press, 1993. p90
^Collins, Edward Jr., Cole, Timothy M. (1996), "Regime Legitimation in Instances of Coup-Caused Governments-in-Exile: The Cases of Presidents Makarios and Aristide",Journal of International Law & Practice 5(2), p 220.
^"Haiti Economy"(PDF). Archived from the original on 2 January 2023. Retrieved11 April 2015.
^Anastasia Moloney (28 September 2009)."Haiti's aid controversy". Thomson Reuters Foundation. Archived fromthe original on 22 July 2015. Retrieved24 July 2013.
^abMatthew Lucky, Katie Auth, Alexander Ochs, et al., Haiti Sustainable Energy Roadmap: Harnessing Domestic Energy Resources to Build an Affordable, Reliable, and Climate-Compatible Electricity System (Washington, DC: Worldwatch Institute, 2014).
^"Energy". U.S. Agency for International Development. 16 August 2018. Archived fromthe original on 12 September 2022. Retrieved5 January 2019.
^Kennedy, C. L. (2014). "Toward Effective Intervention for Haiti's Former Child Slaves".Human Rights Quarterly.36 (4):756–778.doi:10.1353/hrq.2014.0059.S2CID144412249.
^Wingfield, Roland; Parenton, Vernon J. (1965). "Class Structure and Class Conflict in Haitian Society".Social Forces.43 (3):338–347.doi:10.2307/2574763.JSTOR2574763.
^Blier, Suzanne Preston (1995). "Vodun: West African Roots of Vodou". In Donald J., Cosentino (ed.).Sacred Arts of Haitian Vodou. Los Angeles: UCLA Fowler Museum of Cultural History. pp. 61–87.ISBN978-0-930741-47-1.
Meehan, Thomas A. (1963). "Jean Baptiste Point du Sable, the First Chicagoan".Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society.56 (3):439–453.JSTOR40190620.
Prichard, Hesketh.Where Black Rules White: A Journey Across and About Hayti. These are exact reproductions of a book published before 1923: (Nabu Press,ISBN978-1-146-67652-6, 5 March 2010); (Wermod and Wermod Publishing Group,ISBN978-0-9561835-8-3, 15 October 2012).
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