Musical theatre is a form oftheatrical performance that combines songs, spokendialogue, acting and dance. The story and emotional content of a musical – humor,pathos, love, anger – are communicated through words, music, movement and technical aspects of the entertainment as an integrated whole. Although musical theatre overlaps with other theatrical forms like opera and dance, it may be distinguished by the equal importance given to the music as compared with the dialogue, movement and other elements. Since the early 20th century, musical theatre stage works have generally been called, simply,musicals.
Musicals are performed around the world. They may be presented in large venues, such as big-budgetBroadway orWest End productions in New York City or London. Alternatively, musicals may be staged in smaller venues, such asoff-Broadway,off-off-Broadway,regional theatre,fringe theatre, orcommunity theatre productions, oron tour. Musicals are often presented byamateur and school groups in churches, schools and other performance spaces. In addition to the United States and Britain, there are vibrant musical theatre scenes in continental Europe, Asia, Australasia, Canada and Latin America.
A Gaiety Girl (1893) was one of the first hit musicals.
Since the 20th century, the "book musical" has been defined as a musical play where songs and dances are fully integrated into a well-made story with serious dramatic goals and which is able to evoke genuine emotions other than laughter.[2][3] The three main components of a book musical are itsmusic,lyrics andbook. The book orscript of a musical refers to the story, character development and dramatic structure, including the spoken dialogue and stage directions, but it can also refer to the dialogue and lyrics together, which are sometimes referred to as thelibretto (Italian for "small book"). The music and lyrics together form thescore of a musical and include songs,incidental music and musical scenes, which are "theatrical sequence[s] set to music, often combining song with spoken dialogue."[4] The interpretation of a musical is the responsibility of its creative team, which includes a director, a musical director, usually a choreographer and sometimes anorchestrator. A musical's production is also creatively characterized by technical aspects, such asset design,costumes,stage properties (props),lighting andsound. The creative team, designs and interpretations generally change from the original production to succeeding productions. Some production elements, however, may be retained from the original production, for example,Bob Fosse's choreography inChicago.
There is no fixed length for a musical. While it can range from a short one-act entertainment to severalacts and several hours in length (or even a multi-evening presentation), most musicals range from one and a half to three hours. Musicals are usually presented in two acts, with one shortintermission, and the first act is frequently longer than the second. The first act generally introduces nearly all of the characters and most of the music and often ends with the introduction of a dramatic conflict or plot complication while the second act may introduce a few new songs but usually contains reprises of important musical themes and resolves the conflict or complication. A book musical is usually built around four to six main theme tunes that are reprised later in the show, although it sometimes consists of a series of songs not directly musically related. Spoken dialogue is generally interspersed between musical numbers, although "sung dialogue" orrecitative may be used, especially in so-called "sung-through" musicals such asJesus Christ Superstar,Falsettos,Les Misérables,Evita andHamilton. Several shorter musicals on Broadway and in the West End in the 21st century have been presented in one act.
Moments of greatest dramatic intensity in a book musical are often performed in song. Proverbially, "when the emotion becomes too strong for speech, you sing; when it becomes too strong for song, you dance."[5] In a book musical, a song is ideally crafted to suit the character (or characters) and their situation within the story; although there have been times in the history of the musical (e.g. from the 1890s to the 1920s) when this integration between music and story has been tenuous. AsThe New York Times criticBen Brantley described the ideal of song in theatre when reviewing the 2008 revival ofGypsy: "There is no separation at all between song and character, which is what happens in those uncommon moments when musicals reach upward to achieve their ideal reasons to be."[6] Typically, many fewer words are sung in a five-minute song than are spoken in a five-minute block of dialogue. Therefore, there is less time to develop drama in a musical than in a straight play of equivalent length, since a musical usually devotes more time to music than to dialogue. Within the compressed nature of a musical, the writers must develop the characters and the plot.
Musical theatre is closely related to the theatrical form of opera, but the two are usually distinguished by weighing a number of factors. First, musicals generally have a greater focus on spoken dialogue.[7] Some musicals, however, are entirely accompanied and sung-through, while some operas, such asDie Zauberflöte, and mostoperettas, have some unaccompanied dialogue.[7] Second, musicals usually include more dancing as an essential part of the storytelling, particularly by the principal performers as well as the chorus. Third, musicals often use various genres ofpopular music or at least popular singing and musical styles.[8]
Finally, musicals usually avoid certain operatic conventions. In particular, a musical is almost always performed in the language of its audience. Musicals produced on Broadway or in the West End, for instance, are invariably sung in English, even if they were originally written in another language. While an opera singer is primarily a singer and only secondarily an actor (and rarely needs to dance), a musical theatre performer is often an actor first but must also be a singer and dancer. Someone who is equally accomplished at all three is referred to as a "triple threat". Composers of music for musicals often consider the vocal demands of roles with musical theatre performers in mind. Today, large theatres that stage musicals generally usemicrophones andamplification of the actors' singing voices in a way that would generally be disapproved of in an operatic context.[9]
Some works, including those byGeorge Gershwin,Leonard Bernstein andStephen Sondheim, have been made into both musical theatre and operatic productions.[10][11] Similarly, some older operettas or light operas (such asThe Pirates of Penzance byGilbert and Sullivan) have been produced in modern adaptations that treat them as musicals. For some works, production styles are almost as important as the work's musical or dramatic content in defining into which art form the piece falls.[12] Sondheim said, "I really think that when something plays Broadway it's a musical, and when it plays in an opera house it's opera. That's it. It's the terrain, the countryside, the expectations of the audience that make it one thing or another."[13] There remains an overlap in form between lighter operatic forms and more musically complex or ambitious musicals. In practice, it is often difficult to distinguish among the various kinds of musical theatre, including "musical play", "musical comedy", "operetta" and "light opera".[14]
Like opera, the singing in musical theatre is generally accompanied by an instrumental ensemble called apit orchestra, located in a lowered area in front of the stage. While opera typically uses a conventionalsymphony orchestra, musicals are generally orchestrated for ensembles ranging from27 players down to only a few players.Rock musicals usually employ a small group of mostly rock instruments,[15] and some musicals may call for only a piano or two instruments.[16] The music in musicals uses a range of "styles and influences includingoperetta, classical techniques,folk music,jazz [and] local or historical styles [that] are appropriate to the setting."[4] Musicals may begin with anoverture played by the orchestra that "weav[es] together excerpts of the score's famous melodies."[17]
Shorter or simplified "junior" versions of many musicals are available for schools and youth groups, and very short works created or adapted for performance by children are sometimes calledminimusicals.[19][20]
The antecedents of musical theatre in Europe can be traced back to thetheatre of ancient Greece, where music and dance were included in stage comedies and tragedies during the 5th century BCE.[21][22] The music from the ancient forms is lost, however, and they had little influence on later development of musical theatre.[23] In the 12th and 13th centuries, religious dramas taught theliturgy. Groups of actors would use outdoorPageant wagons (stages on wheels) to tell each part of the story. Poetic forms sometimes alternated with the prose dialogues, and liturgical chants gave way to new melodies.[24]
The EuropeanRenaissance saw older forms evolve into two antecedents of musical theatre:commedia dell'arte, where raucous clowns improvised familiar stories, and later,opera buffa. In England, Elizabethan and Jacobean plays frequently included music,[25] and short musical plays began to be included in an evenings' dramatic entertainments.[26] Courtmasques developed during theTudor period that involved music, dancing, singing and acting, often with expensive costumes and a complexstage design.[27][28] These developed into sung plays that are recognizable as English operas, the first usually being thought of asThe Siege of Rhodes (1656).[29] In France, meanwhile,Molière turned several of his farcical comedies into musical entertainments with songs (music provided byJean-Baptiste Lully) and dance in the late 17th century. These influenced a brief period ofEnglish opera[30] by composers such asJohn Blow[31] andHenry Purcell.[29]
From the 18th century, the most popular forms of musical theatre in Britain wereballad operas, likeJohn Gay'sThe Beggar's Opera, that included lyrics written to the tunes of popular songs of the day (often spoofing opera), and laterpantomime, which developed from commedia dell'arte, andcomic opera with mostly romantic plot lines, likeMichael Balfe'sThe Bohemian Girl (1845). Meanwhile, on the continent,singspiel,comédie en vaudeville,opéra comique,zarzuela and other forms of light musical entertainment were emerging.The Beggar's Opera was the first recorded long-running play of any kind, running for 62 successive performances in 1728. It would take almost a century afterwards before any play broke 100 performances,[32] but the record soon reached 150 in the late 1820s.[33][34] Other musical theatre forms developed in England by the 19th century, such asmusic hall,melodrama andburletta, which were popularized partly because most London theatres were licensed only as music halls and not allowed to present plays without music.
Colonial America did not have a significant theatre presence until 1752, when London entrepreneur William Hallam sent a company of actors to the colonies managed by his brotherLewis.[35] In New York in the summer of 1753, they performed ballad-operas, such asThe Beggar's Opera, and ballad-farces.[35] By the 1840s,P. T. Barnum was operating an entertainment complex in lower Manhattan.[36] Other early musical theatre in America consisted of British forms, such as burletta and pantomime,[23] but what a piece was called did not necessarily define what it was. The 1852 BroadwayextravaganzaThe Magic Deer advertised itself as "A Serio Comico Tragico Operatical Historical Extravaganzical Burletical Tale of Enchantment."[37] Theatre in New York moved from downtown gradually to midtown from around 1850 and did not arrive in the Times Square area until the 1920s and 1930s. New York runs lagged far behind those in London, butLaura Keene's "musical burletta"Seven Sisters (1860) shattered previous New York musical theatre record, with a run of 253 performances.[38]
Around 1850, the French composerHervé was experimenting with a form of comic musical theatre he calledopérette.[39] The best known composers ofoperetta wereJacques Offenbach from the 1850s to the 1870s andJohann Strauss II in the 1870s and 1880s.[23] Offenbach's fertile melodies, combined with his librettists' witty satire, formed a model for the musical theatre that followed.[39] Adaptations of the French operettas (played in mostly bad, risqué translations),musical burlesques, music hall, pantomime and burletta dominated the London musical stage into the 1870s.[40]
In America, mid-19th century musical theatre entertainments included crudevariety revue, which eventually developed intovaudeville,minstrel shows, which soon crossed the Atlantic to Britain, and Victorian burlesque, first popularized in the US by British troupes.[23]Kurt Gänzl considersThe Doctor of Alcantara (1862), with music composed byJulius Eichberg and a book and lyrics by Benjamin E Woolf, to be the "first American musical",[41] though he also points to even earlier works.[42] A hugely successful musical entertainment that premiered in New York in 1866,The Black Crook, combined dance and some original music that helped to tell the story. The spectacular production, famous for its skimpy costumes, ran for a record-breaking 474 performances.[43] The same year,The Black Domino/Between You, Me and the Post was the first show to call itself a "musical comedy". In 1874,Evangeline or The Belle of Arcadia, byEdward E. Rice andJ. Cheever Goodwin, based loosely onLongfellow’sEvangeline, with an original American story and music, opened successfully in New York and was revived in Boston, New York, and in repeated tours.[44] ComediansEdward Harrigan andTony Hart produced and starred in musicals on Broadway between 1878 (The Mulligan Guard Picnic) and 1885. These musical comedies featured characters and situations taken from the everyday life of New York's lower classes. They starred high quality singers (Lillian Russell,Vivienne Segal andFay Templeton) instead of the ladies of questionable repute who had starred in earlier musical forms. In 1879,The Brook by Nate Salsbury was another national success with contemporary American dance styles and an American story about "members of an acting company taking a trip down a river ... with lots of obstacles and mishaps along the way".[44]
As transportation improved, poverty in London and New York diminished, and street lighting made for safer travel at night, the number of patrons for the growing number of theatres increased enormously. Plays ran longer, leading to better profits and improved production values, and men began to bring their families to the theatre. The first musical theatre piece to exceed 500 consecutive performances was the French operettaThe Chimes of Normandy in 1878 (705 performances).[33][45] Englishcomic opera adopted many of the successful ideas of European operetta, none more successfully than the series of more than a dozen long-runningGilbert and Sullivan comic operas, includingH.M.S. Pinafore (1878) andThe Mikado (1885).[39] These were sensations on both sides of the Atlantic and in Australia and helped to raise the standard for what was considered a successful show.[46] These shows were designed for family audiences, a marked contrast from the risqué burlesques, bawdy music hall shows and French operettas that sometimes drew a crowd seeking less wholesome entertainment.[40] Only a few 19th-century musical pieces exceeded the run ofThe Mikado, such asDorothy, which opened in 1886 and set a new record with a run of 931 performances. Gilbert and Sullivan's influence on later musical theatre was profound, creating examples of how to "integrate" musicals so that the lyrics and dialogue advanced a coherent story.[47][48] Their works wereadmired and copied by early authors and composers of musicals in Britain[49][50] and America.[46][51]
Cover of the Vocal Score ofSidney Jones'The Geisha
A Trip to Chinatown (1891) was Broadway's long-run champion (untilIrene in 1919), running for 657 performances, but New York runs continued to be relatively short, with a few exceptions, compared with London runs, until the 1920s.[33] Gilbert and Sullivan were widely pirated and also were imitated in New York by productions such asReginald De Koven'sRobin Hood (1891) andJohn Philip Sousa'sEl Capitan (1896).A Trip to Coontown (1898) was the first musical comedy entirely produced and performed by African Americans on Broadway (largely inspired by the routines of theminstrel shows), followed byragtime-tinged shows. Hundreds of musical comedies were staged on Broadway in the 1890s and early 20th century, composed of songs written in New York'sTin Pan Alley, including those byGeorge M. Cohan, who worked to create an American style distinct from the Gilbert and Sullivan works. The most successful New York shows were often followed by extensive national tours.[52]
Meanwhile, musicals took over the London stage in theGay Nineties, led by producerGeorge Edwardes, who perceived that audiences wanted a new alternative to theSavoy-style comic operas and their intellectual, political, absurdist satire. He experimented with a modern-dress, family-friendly musical theatre style, with breezy, popular songs, snappy, romantic banter, and stylish spectacle at theGaiety and his other theatres. These drew on the traditions of comic opera and used elements of burlesque and of the Harrigan and Hart pieces. He replaced the bawdy women of burlesque with his "respectable" corps ofGaiety Girls to complete the musical and visual fun. The success of the first of these,In Town (1892) andA Gaiety Girl (1893) set the style for the next three decades. The plots were generally light, romantic "poor maiden loves aristocrat and wins him against all odds" shows, with music byIvan Caryll,Sidney Jones andLionel Monckton. These shows were immediately widely copied in America, andEdwardian musical comedy swept away the earlier musical forms of comic opera and operetta.The Geisha (1896) was one of the most successful in the 1890s, running for more than two years and achieving great international success.
The Belle of New York (1898) became the first American musical to run for over a year in London. The British musical comedyFlorodora (1899) was a popular success on both sides of the Atlantic, as wasA Chinese Honeymoon (1901), which ran for a record-setting 1,074 performances in London and 376 in New York.[34] After the turn of the 20th century,Seymour Hicks joined forces with Edwardes and American producerCharles Frohman to create another decade of popular shows. Other enduring Edwardian musical comedy hits includedThe Arcadians (1909) andThe Quaker Girl (1910).[53]
Virtually eliminated from the English-speaking stage by competition from the ubiquitous Edwardian musical comedies, operettas returned to London and Broadway in 1907 withThe Merry Widow, and adaptations of continental operettas became direct competitors with musicals.Franz Lehár andOscar Straus composed new operettas that were popular in English until World War I.[54] In America,Victor Herbert produced a string of enduring operettas includingThe Fortune Teller (1898),Babes in Toyland (1903),Mlle. Modiste (1905),The Red Mill (1906) andNaughty Marietta (1910).
These shows built and polished the mold from which almost all later major musical comedies evolved. ... The characters and situations were, within the limitations of musical comedy license, believable and the humor came from the situations or the nature of the characters. Kern's exquisitely flowing melodies were employed to further the action or develop characterization. ... [Edwardian] musical comedy was often guilty of inserting songs in a hit-or-miss fashion. The Princess Theatre musicals brought about a change in approach. P. G. Wodehouse, the most observant, literate and witty lyricist of his day, and the team of Bolton, Wodehouse and Kern had an influence felt to this day.[55]
The theatre-going public needed escapist entertainment during the dark times ofWorld War I, and they flocked to the theatre. The 1919 hit musicalIrene ran for 670 performances, a Broadway record that held until 1938.[56] The British theatre public supported far longer runs like that ofThe Maid of the Mountains (1,352 performances) and especiallyChu Chin Chow. Its run of 2,238 performances was more than twice as long as any previous musical, setting a record that stood for nearly forty years.[57] Even a revival ofThe Beggar's Opera held the stage for 1,463 performances.[58] Revues likeThe Bing Boys Are Here in Britain, and those ofFlorenz Ziegfeld and his imitators in America, were also extraordinarily popular.[37]
The musicals of theRoaring Twenties, borrowing from vaudeville,music hall and other light entertainments, tended to emphasize big dance routines and popular songs at the expense of plot. Typical of the decade were lighthearted productions likeSally;Lady, Be Good;No, No, Nanette;Oh, Kay!; andFunny Face. Despite forgettable stories, these musicals featured stars such asMarilyn Miller andFred Astaire and produced dozens of enduring popular songs by Kern,George andIra Gershwin,Irving Berlin,Cole Porter andRodgers and Hart. Popular music was dominated by musical theatre standards, such as "Fascinating Rhythm", "Tea for Two" and "Someone to Watch Over Me". Many shows wererevues, series of sketches and songs with little or no connection between them. The best-known of these were the annualZiegfeld Follies, spectacular song-and-dance revues on Broadway featuring extravagant sets, elaborate costumes and beautiful chorus girls.[23] These spectacles also raised production values, and mounting a musical generally became more expensive.[37]Shuffle Along (1921), an all-African American show, was a hit on Broadway.[59] A new generation of composers of operettas also emerged in the 1920s, such asRudolf Friml andSigmund Romberg, to create a series of popular Broadway hits.[60]
In London, writer-stars such asIvor Novello andNoël Coward became popular, but the primacy of British musical theatre from the 19th century through 1920 was gradually replaced by American innovation, especially after World War I, as Kern and otherTin Pan Alley composers began to bring new musical styles such asragtime andjazz to the theatres, and theShubert Brothers took control of the Broadway theatres. Musical theatre writerAndrew Lamb notes, "The operatic and theatrical styles of nineteenth-century social structures were replaced by a musical style more aptly suited to twentieth-century society and its vernacular idiom. It was from America that the more direct style emerged, and in America that it was able to flourish in a developing society less hidebound by nineteenth-century tradition."[61] In France,comédie musicale was written between in the early decades of the century for such stars asYvonne Printemps.[62]
Progressing far beyond the comparatively frivolous musicals and sentimental operettas of the decade, Broadway'sShow Boat (1927) represented an even more complete integration of book and score than the Princess Theatre musicals, with dramatic themes told through the music, dialogue, setting and movement. This was accomplished by combining the lyricism of Kern's music with the skillful libretto ofOscar Hammerstein II. One historian wrote, "Here we come to a completely new genre – the musical play as distinguished from musical comedy. Now ... everything else was subservient to that play. Now ... came complete integration of song, humor and production numbers into a single and inextricable artistic entity."[63]
As theGreat Depression set in during the post-Broadway national tour ofShow Boat, the public turned back to mostly light, escapist song-and-dance entertainment.[55] Audiences on both sides of the Atlantic had little money to spend on entertainment, and only a few stage shows anywhere exceeded a run of 500 performances during the decade. The revueThe Band Wagon (1931) starred dancing partners Fred Astaire and his sisterAdele, while Porter'sAnything Goes (1934) confirmedEthel Merman's position as the First Lady of musical theatre, a title she maintained for many years. Coward and Novello continued to deliver old fashioned, sentimental musicals, such asThe Dancing Years, while Rodgers and Hart returned from Hollywood to create a series of successful Broadway shows, includingOn Your Toes (1936, withRay Bolger, the first Broadway musical to make dramatic use of classical dance),Babes in Arms (1937) andThe Boys from Syracuse (1938). Porter addedDu Barry Was a Lady (1939). The longest-running piece of musical theatre of the 1930s in the US wasHellzapoppin (1938), a revue with audience participation, which played for 1,404 performances, setting a new Broadway record.[56] In Britain,Me and My Girl ran for 1,646 performances.[58]
Still, a few creative teams began to build onShow Boat's innovations.Of Thee I Sing (1931), a political satire by the Gershwins, was the first musical awarded thePulitzer Prize.[23][64]As Thousands Cheer (1933), a revue byIrving Berlin andMoss Hart in which each song or sketch was based on a newspaper headline, marked the first Broadway show in which an African-American,Ethel Waters, starred alongside white actors. Waters' numbers included "Supper Time", a woman's lament for her husband who has been lynched.[65] The Gershwins'Porgy and Bess (1935) featured an all African-American cast and blended operatic, folk and jazz idioms.The Cradle Will Rock (1937), directed byOrson Welles, was a highly political pro-union piece that, despite the controversy surrounding it, ran for 108 performances.[37] Rodgers and Hart'sI'd Rather Be Right (1937) was a political satire withGeorge M. Cohan as PresidentFranklin D. Roosevelt, andKurt Weill'sKnickerbocker Holiday depicted New York City's early history while good-naturedly satirizing Roosevelt's good intentions.
The motion picture mounted a challenge to the stage. Silent films had presented only limited competition, but by the end of the 1920s, films likeThe Jazz Singer could be presented with synchronized sound."Talkie" films at low prices effectively killed offvaudeville by the early 1930s.[66] Despite the economic woes of the 1930s and the competition from film, the musical survived. In fact, it continued to evolve thematically beyond the gags and showgirls musicals of theGay Nineties andRoaring Twenties and the sentimental romance of operetta, adding technical expertise and the fast-paced staging and naturalistic dialogue style led by directorGeorge Abbott.[23]
The 1940s began with more hits from Porter,Irving Berlin, Rodgers and Hart, Weill and Gershwin, some with runs over 500 performances as the economy rebounded, but artistic change was in the air.Rodgers and Hammerstein'sOklahoma! (1943) completed the revolution begun byShow Boat, by tightly integrating all the aspects of musical theatre, with a cohesive plot, songs that furthered the action of the story, and featured dream ballets and other dances that advanced the plot and developed the characters, rather than using dance as an excuse to parade scantily clad women across the stage.[3] Rodgers and Hammerstein hired ballet choreographerAgnes de Mille, who used everyday motions to help the characters express their ideas. It defied musical conventions by raising its first act curtain not on a bevy of chorus girls, but rather on a woman churning butter, with an off-stage voice singing the opening lines ofOh, What a Beautiful Mornin' unaccompanied. It drew rave reviews, set off a box-office frenzy and received aPulitzer Prize.[67]Brooks Atkinson wrote inThe New York Times that the show's opening number changed the history of musical theatre: "After a verse like that, sung to a buoyant melody, the banalities of the old musical stage became intolerable."[68] It was the first "blockbuster" Broadway show, running a total of 2,212 performances, and was made into a hit film. It remains one of the most frequently produced of the team's projects. William A. Everett andPaul R. Laird wrote that this was a "show, that, likeShow Boat, became a milestone, so that later historians writing about important moments in twentieth-century theatre would begin to identify eras according to their relationship toOklahoma!".[69]
Mary Martin starred in several Broadway hits of this era
"AfterOklahoma!, Rodgers and Hammerstein were the most important contributors to the musical-play form... The examples they set in creating vital plays, often rich with social thought, provided the necessary encouragement for other gifted writers to create musical plays of their own".[63] The two collaborators created an extraordinary collection of some of musical theatre's best loved and most enduring classics, includingCarousel (1945),South Pacific (1949),The King and I (1951) andThe Sound of Music (1959). Some of these musicals treat more serious subject matter than most earlier shows: the villain inOklahoma! is a suspected murderer and psychopath;Carousel deals with spousal abuse, thievery, suicide and the afterlife;South Pacific explores miscegenation even more thoroughly thanShow Boat; the hero ofThe King and I dies onstage; and the backdrop ofThe Sound of Music is theannexation of Austria by Nazi Germany in 1938.
The show's creativity stimulated Rodgers and Hammerstein's contemporaries and ushered in the "Golden Age" of American musical theatre.[68] Americana was displayed on Broadway during the "Golden Age", as the wartime cycle of shows began to arrive. An example of this isOn the Town (1944), written byBetty Comden andAdolph Green, composed byLeonard Bernstein and choreographed byJerome Robbins. The story is set during wartime and concerns three sailors who are on a 24-hour shore leave in New York City, during which each falls in love. The show also gives the impression of a country with an uncertain future, as the sailors and their women also have.Irving Berlin used sharpshooterAnnie Oakley's career as a basis for hisAnnie Get Your Gun (1946, 1,147 performances);Burton Lane,E. Y. Harburg andFred Saidy combined political satire with Irish whimsy for their fantasyFinian's Rainbow (1947, 725 performances); and Cole Porter found inspiration inWilliam Shakespeare'sThe Taming of the Shrew forKiss Me, Kate (1948, 1,077 performances). The American musicals overwhelmed the old-fashioned British Coward/Novello-style shows, one of the last big successes of which was Novello'sPerchance to Dream (1945, 1,021 performances).[58] The formula for the Golden Age musicals reflected one or more of four widely held perceptions of the "American dream": That stability and worth derives from a love relationship sanctioned and restricted by Protestant ideals of marriage; that a married couple should make a moral home with children away from the city in a suburb or small town; that the woman's function was as homemaker and mother; and that Americans incorporate an independent and pioneering spirit or that their success is self-made.[70]
The 1950s were crucial to the development of the American musical.[71]Damon Runyon's eclectic characters were at the core ofFrank Loesser's andAbe Burrows'Guys and Dolls, (1950, 1,200 performances); and theGold Rush was the setting forAlan Jay Lerner andFrederick Loewe'sPaint Your Wagon (1951). The relatively brief seven-month run of that show did not discourageLerner and Loewe from collaborating again, this time onMy Fair Lady (1956), an adaptation ofGeorge Bernard Shaw'sPygmalion starringRex Harrison andJulie Andrews, which at 2,717 performances held the long-run record for many years. Popular Hollywood films were made of all of these musicals. Two hits by British creators in this decade wereThe Boy Friend (1954), which ran for 2,078 performances in London and marked Andrews' American debut, andSalad Days (1954), which broke the British long-run record with a run of 2,283 performances.[58][57]
West Side Story (1957) transportedRomeo and Juliet to modern day New York City and converted the feuding Montague and Capulet families into opposing ethnic gangs, the Jets and the Sharks. The book was adapted byArthur Laurents, with music byLeonard Bernstein and lyrics by newcomerStephen Sondheim. It was praised by critics for its innovations in music and choreography[73][74] but was less commercially successful than the same year'sThe Music Man, written and composed byMeredith Willson, which won theTony Award for Best Musical that year.[75]West Side Story would get afilm adaptation in 1961, which proved successful both critically and commercially.[76][77] Laurents and Sondheim teamed up again forGypsy (1959), withJule Styne providing the music for a story aboutRose Thompson Hovick, the mother of the titular stripperGypsy Rose Lee.
Although directors and choreographers have had a major influence on musical theatre style since at least the 19th century,[78] George Abbott and his collaborators and successors took a central role in integrating movement and dance fully into musical theatre productions in the Golden Age.[79] Abbott introduced ballet as a story-telling device inOn Your Toes in 1936, which was followed byAgnes de Mille's ballet and choreography inOklahoma!.[80] After Abbott collaborated with Jerome Robbins inOn the Town and other shows, Robbins combined the roles of director and choreographer, emphasizing the story-telling power of dance inWest Side Story,A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum (1962) andFiddler on the Roof (1964).Bob Fosse choreographed for Abbott inThe Pajama Game (1956) andDamn Yankees (1957), injecting playful sexuality into those hits. He was later the director-choreographer forSweet Charity (1968),Pippin (1972) andChicago (1975). Other notable director-choreographers have includedGower Champion,Tommy Tune,Michael Bennett,Gillian Lynne andSusan Stroman. Prominent directors have includedHal Prince, who also got his start with Abbott,[79] andTrevor Nunn.[81]
During the Golden Age, automotive companies and other large corporations began to hire Broadway talent to writecorporate musicals, private shows only seen by their employees or customers.[82][83] The 1950s ended withRodgers and Hammerstein's last hit,The Sound of Music, which also became another hit for Mary Martin. It ran for 1,443 performances and shared the Tony Award for Best Musical. Together with its extremely successful1965 film version, it has become one of the most popular musicals in history.
In 1960,The Fantasticks was first produced off-Broadway. This intimate allegorical show would quietly run for over 40 years at the Sullivan Street Theatre inGreenwich Village, becoming by far the longest-running musical in history. Its authors produced other innovative works in the 1960s, such asCelebration andI Do! I Do!, the first two-character Broadway musical. The 1960s would see a number of blockbusters, likeFiddler on the Roof (1964; 3,242 performances),Hello, Dolly! (1964; 2,844 performances),Funny Girl (1964; 1,348 performances) andMan of La Mancha (1965; 2,328 performances), and some more risqué pieces likeCabaret, before ending with the emergence of therock musical. In Britain,Oliver! (1960) ran for 2,618 performances, but the long-run champion of the decade wasThe Black and White Minstrel Show (1962), which played for 4,344 performances.[58] Two men had considerable impact on musical theatre history beginning in this decade:Stephen Sondheim andJerry Herman.
Bernadette Peters (shown in 2008) has starred in five Sondheim musicals
While some critics have argued that some of Sondheim's musicals lack commercial appeal, others have praised their lyrical sophistication and musical complexity, as well as the interplay of lyrics and music in his shows. Some of Sondheim's notable innovations include a show presented in reverse (Merrily We Roll Along) and the above-mentionedAnyone Can Whistle, in which the first act ends with the cast informing the audience that they are mad.
Jerry Herman played a significant role in American musical theatre, beginning with his first Broadway production,Milk and Honey (1961, 563 performances), about the founding of the state of Israel, and continuing with the blockbuster hitsHello, Dolly! (1964, 2,844 performances),Mame (1966, 1,508 performances), andLa Cage aux Folles (1983, 1,761 performances). Even his less successful shows likeDear World (1969) andMack and Mabel (1974) have had memorable scores (Mack and Mabel was later reworked into a London hit). Writing both words and music, many of Herman'sshow tunes have become popular standards, including "Hello, Dolly!", "We Need a Little Christmas", "I Am What I Am", "Mame", "The Best of Times", "Before the Parade Passes By", "Put On Your Sunday Clothes", "It Only Takes a Moment", "Bosom Buddies" and "I Won't Send Roses", recorded by such artists asLouis Armstrong,Eydie Gormé,Barbra Streisand,Petula Clark and Bernadette Peters. Herman's songbook has been the subject of two popular musical revues,Jerry's Girls (Broadway, 1985) andShowtune (off-Broadway, 2003).
The musical started to diverge from the relatively narrow confines of the 1950s. Rock music would be used in several Broadway musicals, beginning withHair, which featured not only rock music but also nudity and controversial opinions about theVietnam War, race relations and other social issues.[84]
AfterShow Boat andPorgy and Bess, and as the struggle in America and elsewhere for minorities'civil rights progressed, Hammerstein,Harold Arlen,Yip Harburg and others were emboldened to write more musicals and operas that aimed to normalize societal toleration of minorities and urged racial harmony. Early Golden Age works that focused on racial tolerance includedFinian's Rainbow andSouth Pacific. Towards the end of the Golden Age, several shows tackled Jewish subjects and issues, such asFiddler on the Roof,Milk and Honey,Blitz! and laterRags. The original concept that becameWest Side Story was set in theLower East Side during Easter-Passover celebrations; the rival gangs were to be Jewish andItalianCatholic. The creative team later decided that the Polish (white) vs.Puerto Rican conflict was fresher.[85]
Tolerance as an important theme in musicals has continued in recent decades. The final expression ofWest Side Story left a message of racial tolerance. By the end of the 1960s, musicals became racially integrated, with black and white cast members even covering each other's roles, as they did inHair.[86] Homosexuality has also been explored in musicals, starting withHair, and even more overtly inLa Cage aux Folles,Falsettos,Rent,Hedwig and the Angry Inch and other shows in recent decades.Parade is a sensitive exploration of bothanti-Semitism and historical American racism, andRagtime similarly explores the experience of immigrants and minorities in America.
After the success ofHair,rock musicals flourished in the 1970s, withJesus Christ Superstar,Godspell,The Rocky Horror Show,Evita andTwo Gentlemen of Verona. Some of those began as "concept albums" which were then adapted to the stage, most notablyJesus Christ Superstar andEvita. Others had no dialogue or were otherwise reminiscent of opera, with dramatic, emotional themes; these sometimes started as concept albums and were referred to asrock operas. Shows likeRaisin,Dreamgirls,Purlie andThe Wiz brought a significant African-American influence to Broadway. More varied musical genres and styles were incorporated into musicals both on and especially off-Broadway. At the same time, Stephen Sondheim found success with some of his musicals, as mentioned above.
In 1975, the dance musicalA Chorus Line emerged from recorded group therapy-style sessionsMichael Bennett conducted with "gypsies" – those who sing and dance in support of the leading players – from the Broadway community. From hundreds of hours of tapes,James Kirkwood Jr. andNick Dante fashioned a book about an audition for a musical, incorporating many real-life stories from the sessions; some who attended the sessions eventually played variations of themselves or each other in the show. With music byMarvin Hamlisch and lyrics byEdward Kleban,A Chorus Line first opened atJoseph Papp'sPublic Theater in lower Manhattan. What initially had been planned as a limited engagement eventually moved to theShubert Theatre on Broadway[87] for a run of 6,137 performances, becoming the longest-running production in Broadway history up to that time. The show swept the Tony Awards and won thePulitzer Prize, and its hit song,What I Did for Love, became a standard.[88]
Broadway audiences welcomed musicals that varied from the golden age style and substance.John Kander andFred Ebb explored the rise ofNazism in Germany inCabaret, and murder and the media inProhibition-eraChicago, which relied on oldvaudeville techniques.Pippin, byStephen Schwartz, was set in the days ofCharlemagne.Federico Fellini's autobiographical film8½ becameMaury Yeston'sNine. At the end of the decade,Evita andSweeney Todd were precursors of the darker, big budget musicals of the 1980s that depended on dramatic stories, sweeping scores and spectacular effects. At the same time, old-fashioned values were still embraced in such hits asAnnie,42nd Street,My One and Only, and popular revivals ofNo, No, Nanette andIrene. Although many film versions of musicals were made in the 1970s, few were critical or box office successes, with the notable exceptions ofFiddler on the Roof,Cabaret andGrease.[89]
The 1980s saw the influence of European "megamusicals" on Broadway, in the West End and elsewhere. These typically feature a pop-influenced score, large casts and spectacular sets and special effects – a fallingchandelier (inThe Phantom of the Opera); a helicopter landing on stage (inMiss Saigon) – and big budgets. Some were based on novels or other works of literature. The British team of composerAndrew Lloyd Webber and producerCameron Mackintosh started the megamusical phenomenon with their 1981 musicalCats, based on the poems ofT. S. Eliot, which overtookA Chorus Line to become the longest-running Broadway show. Lloyd Webber followed up withStarlight Express (1984), performed on roller skates;The Phantom of the Opera (1986; also with Mackintosh), derived from thenovel of the same name; andSunset Boulevard (1993), from the 1950film of the same name.Phantom would surpassCats to become the longest-running show in Broadway history, a record it still holds.[90][91] The French team ofClaude-Michel Schönberg andAlain Boublil wroteLes Misérables, based on thenovel of the same name, whose 1985 London production was produced by Mackintosh and became, and still is, thelongest-running musical in West End and Broadway history. The team produced another hit withMiss Saigon (1989), which was inspired by the Puccini operaMadama Butterfly.[90][91]
The megamusicals' huge budgets redefined expectations for financial success on Broadway and in the West End. In earlier years, it was possible for a show to be considered a hit after a run of several hundred performances, but with multimillion-dollar production costs, a show must run for years simply to turn a profit. Megamusicals were also reproduced in productions around the world, multiplying their profit potential while expanding the global audience for musical theatre.[91]
In the 1990s, a new generation of theatrical composers emerged, includingJason Robert Brown andMichael John LaChiusa, who began with productions off-Broadway. The most conspicuous success of these artists wasJonathan Larson's showRent (1996), a rock musical (based on the operaLa bohème) about a struggling community of artists in Manhattan. While the cost of tickets to Broadway and West End musicals was escalating beyond the budget of many theatregoers,Rent was marketed to increase the popularity of musicals among a younger audience. It featured a young cast and a heavily rock-influenced score; the musical became a hit. Its young fans, many of them students, calling themselves RENTheads, camped out at theNederlander Theatre in hopes of winning the lottery for $20 front row tickets, and some saw the show dozens of times. Other shows on Broadway followedRent's lead by offering heavily discounted day-of-performance or standing-room tickets, although often the discounts are offered only to students.[92]
The 1990s also saw the influence of large corporations on the production of musicals. The most important has beenDisney Theatrical Productions, which began adapting some ofDisney's animated film musicals for the stage, starting withBeauty and the Beast (1994),The Lion King (1997) andAida (2000), the latter two with music byElton John.The Lion King is thehighest-grossing musical in Broadway history.[93]The Who's Tommy (1993), a theatrical adaptation of the rock operaTommy, achieved a healthy run of 899 performances but was criticized for sanitizing the story and "musical theatre-izing" the rock music.[94]
Despite the growing number of large-scale musicals in the 1980s and 1990s, a number of lower-budget, smaller-scale musicals managed to find critical and financial success, such asFalsettoland,Little Shop of Horrors,Bat Boy: The Musical andBlood Brothers, which ran for 10,013 performances.[95] The topics of these pieces vary widely, and the music ranges from rock to pop, but they often are produced off-Broadway, or for smaller London theatres, and some of these stagings have been regarded as imaginative and innovative.[96]
In the new century, familiarity has been embraced by producers and investors anxious to guarantee that they recoup their considerable investments. Some took (usually modest-budget) chances on new and creative material, such asUrinetown (2001),Avenue Q (2003),The Light in the Piazza (2005),Spring Awakening (2006),In the Heights (2008),Next to Normal (2009),American Idiot (2010) andThe Book of Mormon (2011).Hamilton (2015), transformed "under-dramatized American history" into an unusual hip-hop inflected hit.[97] In 2011, Sondheim argued that of all forms of "contemporary pop music",rap was "the closest to traditional musical theatre" and was "one pathway to the future."[98]
Today, it is less likely that a sole producer, such asDavid Merrick orCameron Mackintosh, backs a production. Corporate sponsors dominate Broadway, and often alliances are formed to stage musicals, which require an investment of $10 million or more. In 2002, the credits forThoroughly Modern Millie listed ten producers, and among those names were entities composed of several individuals.[100] Typically, off-Broadway and regional theatres tend to produce smaller and therefore less expensive musicals, and development of new musicals has increasingly taken place outside of New York and London or in smaller venues. For example,Spring Awakening,Fun Home andHamilton were developed off-Broadway before being launched on Broadway.
Several musicals returned to the spectacle format that was so successful in the 1980s, recallingextravaganzas that have been presented at times, throughout theatre history, since the ancient Romans staged mock sea battles. Examples include the musical adaptations ofLord of the Rings (2007),Gone with the Wind (2008) andSpider-Man: Turn Off the Dark (2011). These musicals involved songwriters with little theatrical experience, and the expensive productions generally lost money. Conversely,The Drowsy Chaperone,Avenue Q,The 25th Annual Putnam County Spelling Bee,Xanadu andFun Home, among others, have been presented in smaller-scale productions, mostly uninterrupted by an intermission, with short running times, and enjoyed financial success. In 2013,Time magazine reported that a trend off-Broadway has been "immersive" theatre, citing shows such asNatasha, Pierre & The Great Comet of 1812 (2012) andHere Lies Love (2013) in which the staging takes place around and within the audience.[101] The shows set a joint record, each receiving 11 nominations forLucille Lortel Awards,[102] and feature contemporary scores.[103][104]
Made for TV musical films were popular in the 1990s, such asGypsy (1993),Cinderella (1997) andAnnie (1999). Several made for TV musicals in the first decade of the 21st century were adaptations of the stage version, such asSouth Pacific (2001),The Music Man (2003) andOnce Upon a Mattress (2005), and a televised version of the stage musicalLegally Blonde in 2007. Additionally, several musicals were filmed on stage and broadcast on Public Television, for exampleContact in 2002 andKiss Me, Kate andOklahoma! in 2003. The made-for-TV musicalHigh School Musical (2006), and its several sequels, enjoyed particular success and were adapted for stage musicals and other media.
TheCOVID-19 pandemic caused theclosure of theatres and theatre festivals around the world in early 2020, including all Broadway[120] and West End theatres.[121] Many performing arts institutions attempted to adapt, or reduce their losses, by offering new (or expanded) digital services. In particular this resulted in theonline streaming of previously recorded performances of many companies,[122][123][124] as well as bespoke crowdsourcing projects.[125][126] For example, TheSydney Theatre Company commissioned actors to film themselves at home discussing, then performing, a monologue from one of the characters they had previously played on stage.[127] The casts of musicals, such asHamilton andMamma Mia! united on Zoom calls to entertain individuals and the public.[128][129] Some performances were streamed live, or presented outdoors or in other "socially distanced" ways, sometimes allowing audience members to interact with the cast.[130] Radio theatre festivals were broadcast.[131] Virtual, and even crowd-sourced musicals were created, such asRatatouille the Musical.[132][133] Filmed versions of major musicals, likeHamilton, were released on streaming platforms.[134] Andrew Lloyd Webber released recordings of his musicals on YouTube.[135]
Due to the closures and loss of ticket sales, many theatre companies were placed in financial peril. Some governments offered emergency aid to the arts.[136][137][138] Some musical theatre markets began to reopen in fits and starts by early 2021,[139] with West End theatres postponing their reopening from June to July,[140] and Broadway starting in September.[141] Throughout 2021, however, spikes in the pandemic have caused some closures even after markets reopened.[142][143]
The U.S. and Britain were the most active sources of book musicals from the 19th century through much of the 20th century (although Europe produced various forms of popularlight opera and operetta, for example SpanishZarzuela, during that period and even earlier). However, the light musical stage in other countries has become more active in recent decades.
Musicals from other English-speaking countries (notably Australia and Canada) often do well locally and occasionally even reach Broadway or the West End (e.g.,The Boy from Oz andThe Drowsy Chaperone). South Africa has an active musical theatre scene, with revues likeAfrican Footprint andUmoja and book musicals, such asKat and the Kings andSarafina! touring internationally. Locally, musicals likeVere,Love and Green Onions,Over the Rainbow: the all-new all-gay... extravaganza andBangbroek Mountain andIn Briefs – a queer little Musical have been produced successfully.
Japan's all-femaleTakarazuka Revue in a 1930 performance of "Parisette"
Japan has recently seen the growth of an indigenous form of musical theatre, both animated and live action, mostly based onAnime andManga, such asKiki's Delivery Service andTenimyu. The popularSailor Moon metaseries has had twenty-nineSailor Moon musicals, spanning thirteen years. Beginning in 1914, a series of popularrevues have been performed by the all-femaleTakarazuka Revue, which currently fields five performing troupes. Elsewhere in Asia, the IndianBollywood musical, mostly in the form of motion pictures, is tremendously successful.[144]
Beginning with a 2002 tour ofLes Misérables, various Western musicals have been imported to mainland China and staged in English.[145] Attempts at localizing Western productions in China began in 2008 whenFame was produced in Mandarin with a full Chinese cast at theCentral Academy of Drama in Beijing.[146] Since then, other western productions have been staged in China in Mandarin with a Chinese cast. The first Chinese production in the style of Western musical theatre wasThe Gold Sand in 2005.[145] In addition, Li Dun, a well-known Chinese producer, producedButterflies, based on a classic Chinese love tragedy, in 2007 as well asLove U Teresa in 2011.[145]
Musicals are often presented byamateur and school groups in churches, schools and other performance spaces.[147][148] Although amateur theatre has existed for centuries, even in the New World,[149]François Cellier and Cunningham Bridgeman wrote, in 1914, that prior to the late 19th century, amateur actors were treated with contempt by professionals. After the formation of amateurGilbert and Sullivan companies licensed to perform theSavoy operas, professionals recognized that the amateur societies "support the culture of music and the drama. They are now accepted as useful training schools for the legitimate stage, and from the volunteer ranks have sprung many present-day favourites."[150] TheNational Operatic and Dramatic Association was founded in the UK in 1899. It reported, in 1914, that nearly 200 amateur dramatic societies were producing Gilbert and Sullivan works in Britain that year.[150] Similarly, more than 100 amateur theatres were founded in the US in the early 20th century. This number has grown to an estimated 18,000 in the US.[149] The Educational Theater Association in the US has nearly 5,000 member schools.[151]
The Broadway League announced that in the 2007–08 season, 12.27 million tickets were purchased for Broadway shows for a gross sale amount of almost a billion dollars.[152] The League further reported that during the 2006–07 season, approximately 65% of Broadway tickets were purchased by tourists, and that foreign tourists were 16% of attendees.[153] The Society of London Theatre reported that 2007 set a record for attendance in London. Total attendees in the major commercial and grant-aided theatres in Central London were 13.6 million, and total ticket revenues were £469.7 million.[154] The international musicals scene has been increasingly active in recent decades. Nevertheless, Stephen Sondheim commented in the year 2000:
You have two kinds of shows on Broadway – revivals and the same kind of musicals over and over again, all spectacles. You get your tickets forThe Lion King a year in advance, and essentially a family ... pass on to their children the idea that that's what the theater is – a spectacular musical you see once a year, a stage version of a movie. It has nothing to do with theater at all. It has to do with seeing what is familiar. ... I don't think the theatre will dieper se, but it's never going to be what it was. ... It's a tourist attraction."[155]
However, noting the success in recent decades of original material, and creative re-imaginings of film, plays and literature, theatre historianJohn Kenrick countered:
Is the Musical dead? ... Absolutely not! Changing? Always! The musical has been changing ever sinceOffenbach did his first rewrite in the 1850s. And change is the clearest sign that the musical is still a living, growing genre. Will we ever return to the so-called 'golden age', with musicals at the center of popular culture? Probably not. Public taste has undergone fundamental changes, and the commercial arts can only flow where the paying public allows.[37]
^Bargainnier, Earl F. "W. S. Gilbert and American Musical Theatre", pp. 120–133,American Popular Music: Readings from the Popular Press by Timothy E. Scheurer, Popular Press, 1989ISBN0-87972-466-8
^Meyerson, Harold and Ernest HarburgWho Put the Rainbow in the Wizard of Oz?: Yip Harburg, Lyricist, pp. 15–17 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993); and Bradley, p. 9
^Krasner, David.A Beautiful Pageant: African American Theatre, Drama and Performance in the Harlem Renaissance, 1910–1927, Palgrave MacMillan, 2002, pp. 263–267
^Kerr, Walter (September 27, 1957)."'West Side Story'".New York Herald Tribune. Archived fromthe original on September 26, 2011. RetrievedAugust 19, 2011.
^W. S. Gilbert and his choreographerJohn D'Auban helped transformed Victorian musical theatre production styles. See Vorder Bruegge, Andrew (Associate Professor, Department Chair, Department of Theatre and Dance, Winthrop University)."W. S. Gilbert: Antiquarian Authenticity and Artistic Autocracy"Archived 2011-05-10 at theWayback Machine. Victorian Interdisciplinary Studies Association of the Western United States annual conference, October 2002. Retrieved 26 March 2008; and "Mr. D'Auban's 'Startrap' Jumps".The Times, 17 April 1922, p. 17
^abKenrick, John."The 1980s", History of Musical Film, musicals101.com, accessed July 11, 2014; and Kenrick, John."The 1990s: Disney & Beyond", History of Musical Film, musicals101.com, accessed July 11, 2014
^Major organizations representing amateur theatre groups includeNational Operatic and Dramatic Association in the UK, American Association of Community Theatre in the US, and the International Amateur Theatre Association. School groups include the Educational Theater Association, which has 5,000 member school groups in the US. See Nadworny, Elissa."The Most Popular High School Plays and Musicals",NPR, November 13, 2015, accessed March 14, 2016
^Filichia, Peter. (2004)Let's Put on a Musical!: How to Choose the Right Show for Your School, Community or Professional Theater, Watson-Guptill Publications,ISBN0823088170
Gokulsing, K. Moti; Dissanayake, Wimal (2004) [1998].Indian popular cinema : a narrative of cultural change (Revised and updated ed.). Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham. p. 161.ISBN978-1-85856-329-9.
Herbert, Ian, ed. (1972).Who's Who in the Theatre (fifteenth ed.). London: Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons.ISBN978-0-273-31528-5.
Wollman, E. L. (2006).The Theater Will Rock: a History of the Rock Musical: From Hair to Hedwig. Michigan: University of Michigan Press.ISBN0-472-11576-6.
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