Mongol invasions of Anatolia
Part of theMongol invasions and conquests
Mongol invasions of Anatolia
Date 1241–1335 Location Anatolia Result Mongol victory
Belligerents
Mongol Empire Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia  Kingdom of Georgia Ilkhanate	Sultanate of Rum Anatolian beyliks

Mongol invasions of Anatolia occurred at various times, starting with the campaign of 1241–1243 that culminated in theBattle of Köse Dağ. Real power overAnatolia was exercised by the Mongols after the Seljuks surrendered in 1243 until the fall of the Ilkhanate in 1335.^[1] Because the Seljuk sultan rebelled several times, in 1255, the Mongols swept through central and eastern Anatolia. AnIlkhanate garrison was stationed nearAnkara.^[2][3] Remains of the Mongol cultural heritage still can be seen in Turkey, including tombs of a Mongol governor and a son ofHulagu.

By the end of the 14th century, most of Anatolia was controlled by variousAnatolian beyliks due to the collapse of the Seljuk dynasty in Rum. The Turkmen beyliks were under the control of the Mongols through declining Seljuk sultans.^[4][5] The Beyliks did not mint coins in the names of their own leaders while they remained under the suzerainty of the Ilkhanids.^[6] TheOttoman rulerOsman I was the first Turkish ruler who minted coins in his own name in the 1320s.^[7] Since the minting of coins was a prerogative accorded in Islamic practice only to be asovereign, it can be considered that the Ottomans became independent of the Mongol Khans.^[8]

In the 12th century, theByzantine Empire reasserted control in Western and Northern Anatolia. After the sack of Constantinople in 1204 by LatinCrusaders, two Byzantinesuccessor states were established: theEmpire of Nicaea, and theDespotate of Epirus. A third one, theEmpire of Trebizond was created a few weeks before the sack of Constantinople byAlexios I of Trebizond. Of these three successor states, Trebizond and Nicaea stood near the Mongolian Empire. Control of Anatolia was then split between the Greek states and theSeljuk Sultanate of Rum, with the Byzantine holdings gradually being reduced.

TheMongol Empire conqueredPersia in 1230;Chormaqan became military governor. There were then no hostilities with the Seljuk Turks.Kayqubad I and his immediate successorKaykhusraw II swore an oath ofvassalage with the payment of at least token tribute to the Great KhanÖgedei.^[9][10] Ögedei died in 1241, and Kaykhusraw took the opportunity to repudiate his vassalage, believing he was strong enough to resist the Mongols. Chormaqan's successorBaiju summoned him to renew his submission: go toMongolia in person, give hostages, and accept a Mongoldarughachi. When the Sultan refused, Baiju declared war. The Seljuks invaded theKingdom of Georgia, vassal of the Mongol Empire.

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Baiju's army attackedErzurum in relation to Kaykhusraw's disobedience in 1241. Before attacking, Baiju demanded submission. The inhabitants of the city insulted the Mongol envoy sent by him. Since the city decided to resist and defied Mongol diplomacy, theMongols besieged it. In two months, theMongols took Karin and punished its residents. Aware of the Seljuk power inAnatolia, Baiju returned to theMugan plain without advancing further.

Baiju advanced to Erzurum with a contingent of Georgian and Armenian warriors underAvag andShanshe in 1243. They besieged the city of Erzurum when its governor Yakut refused to surrender it. With the power of twelve catapults, Baiju stormedErzurum. When the reports of the attack on Erzurum reported to him,Kaykhusraw II summoned his armed forces atKonya. He accepted the challenge by sending a war message, defying Baiju that his army took only one of his many cities.

The Seljuk Sultan made an alliance with all nations surrounding him. The King ofArmenian Kingdom of Cilicia promised him to send a contingent; however, it is not certain they really engaged in his struggle with the Mongols. Kaykhusraw received the military support from theEmpire of Trebizond and theAyyubid Sultan atAleppo, and theFrankish mercenaries participated in the campaign.^[11] Because of little reliable information, it is difficult to measure the opposing troops. But the Seljuk force was larger than the Mongols.

Kaykhusraw advanced fromKonya some 320 kilometres (200 miles) up to Köse Dağ. The Mongolian army entered the area in June 1243 and awaited the march of the Seljuks and their allies. The early stage of the battle was indecisive. The Sultan's forces suffered the greater casualties and he decided to withdraw at night. Pursuing him, Baiju received the submission ofArzenjan(Erzincan),Divriği andSivas en route.

The Mongols set up their camp nearSivas. When the Mongols penetrated intoKayseri, it chose to resist them. After a short resistance, it fell to the invaders. Hearing of the disaster at Köse Dağ,Hethum I of Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia quickly made his peace with the Mongols in 1243 and sent his brotherSembat to the Mongol court ofKarakorum in 1247 to negotiate an alliance with the Mongolian EmperorGüyük.

Kaykhusraw sent a delegation headed by his vizier to Baiju, realizing the further resistance would only produce a great disaster. Baiju offered terms based on resubmission and the Sultan was undertaken to pay a tribute tax every year in gold, silk, camel and sheep of uncertain quantities. However, the Turkish realm that had been taken by the military force remained occupied by the Mongols. Almost half of the Sultanate of Rum became an occupied country. The Empire of Trebizond became subject to theMongolianQaghan, fearing of the potential punitive expedition because they involved in the battle of Köse Dağ.^[13]

In theEmpire of NicaeaJohn III Doukas Vatatzes prepared for the coming Mongol threat. However, Vatatzes had sent envoys to the Qaghans Güyük andMöngke but was playing for time. The Mongol Empire did not cause any harm to his plan to recaptureConstantinople from the hands of theLatins who also sent their envoy to the Mongols. Vatatzes' successors, thePalaiologan emperors of the restoredByzantine Empire, made an alliance with the Mongols, giving their princesses in marriage to the Mongol khans.

• 13th century in Asia
• 13th-century conflicts
• Invasions by the Mongol Empire
• Sultanate of Rum

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• Short description is different from Wikidata