Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa za Banga[a] (/məˈbuːtuːˈsɛseɪˈsɛkoʊ/ⓘmə-BOO-tooSESS-aySEK-oh; bornJoseph-Désiré Mobutu; 14 October 1930 – 7 September 1997), often shortened toMobutu Sese Seko orMobutu and also known by his initialsMSS, was a Congolese politician and military officer who was the first and onlypresident of Zaire from 1971 to 1997. Previously, Mobutu served as the secondpresident of the Democratic Republic of the Congo from 1965 to 1971. He also served as the fifthchairperson of the Organisation of African Unity from 1967 to 1968. During theCongo Crisis, Mobutu, serving as Chief of Staff of the Army and supported by Belgium and the United States, deposed the democratically elected government of left-wing nationalistPatrice Lumumba in 1960. Mobutu installed a government that arranged for Lumumba's execution in 1961, and continued to lead the country's armed forces until he took power directly in a second coup in 1965.
Mobutu claimed that his political ideology was "neither left nor right, nor even centre",[4] but was primarily recognized for his opposition tocommunism within theFrançafrique region and received strong support (military, diplomatic and economic) from the United States, France, and Belgium given the fact. He also built close ties with the governments ofapartheidSouth Africa,Israel and theGreek junta.[5]
Mobutu was notorious for corruption and nepotism: estimates of his personal wealth range from $50 million to $5 billion,[6][7] amassed through economic exploitation and corruption as president.[8] His rule has been called akleptocracy[9][10] for allowing this personal fortune even as theeconomy of Zaire suffered from uncontrolled inflation, a large debt, and massive currencydevaluations. Mobutu was further known for extravagances such as shopping trips to Paris via the supersonicConcorde aircraft.[11]
By 1990, economic deterioration and unrest forced Mobutu Sese Seko into a coalition with political opponents and to allow a multiparty system. Although he used his troops to thwart change, his antics did not last long. In May 1997, rebel forces led byLaurent-Désiré Kabila overran the country and forced him into exile. Already suffering from advancedprostate cancer, he died three months later in Morocco.
Mobutu, a member of theNgbandi ethnic group,[12] was born in 1930 inLisala,Belgian Congo.[13] Mobutu's mother, Marie Madeleine Yemo, was a hotel maid who fled to Lisala to escape theharem of a local village chief. There she met and married Albéric Gbemani, a cook for a Belgian judge.[14][15] Shortly afterward she gave birth to Mobutu. The name "Mobutu" was selected by an uncle.
Gbemani died when Mobutu was eight.[16] Thereafter, he was raised by an uncle and a grandfather.
The Belgian judge's wife took a liking to Mobutu and taught him to speak, read, and write fluently inFrench,[17] the official language of the colony. His widowed mother Yemo relied on the help of relatives to support her four children, and the family moved often. Mobutu's earliest education took place in the capitalLéopoldville (now Kinshasa). His mother eventually sent him to an uncle inCoquilhatville (present-day Mbandaka), where he attended the Christian Brothers School, a Catholic-mission boarding school. He excelled in academic subjects and ran the class newspaper. He was also known for his pranks and impish sense of humor.[citation needed]
A classmate recalled that when the Belgian priests, whose first language was Dutch, made an error in French, Mobutu would leap to his feet in class and point out the mistake. In 1949 Mobutu stowed away aboard a boat, traveling downriver to Léopoldville, where he met a girl. The priests found him several weeks later. At the end of the school year, in lieu of being sent to prison, he was ordered to serve seven years in the colonial army, theForce Publique (FP). This was a usual punishment for rebellious students.[18]
Mobutu found discipline in army life, as well as a father figure in SergeantLouis Bobozo. Mobutu kept up his studies by borrowing European newspapers from the Belgian officers and books from wherever he could find them, reading them on sentry duty and whenever he had a spare moment. His favorites were the writings of French presidentCharles de Gaulle, British prime ministerWinston Churchill, and Italian Renaissance philosopherNiccolò Machiavelli. After passing a course in accounting, Mobutu began to dabble professionally in journalism. Still angry after his clashes with the school priests, he did not marry in a church. His contribution to the wedding festivities was a crate of beer, all his army salary could afford.[19]
As a soldier, Mobutu wrote in pseudonym on contemporary politics forActualités Africaines (African News), a magazine set up by a Belgian colonial. In 1956, he quit the army and became a full-time journalist,[20] writing for the Léopoldville dailyL'Avenir.[21]
Two years later, he went to Belgium to cover the1958 World Exposition and stayed to receive training in journalism. By this time, Mobutu had met many of the young Congolese intellectuals who were challenging colonial rule. He became friendly withPatrice Lumumba and joined Lumumba'sCongolese National Movement (MNC). Mobutu eventually became Lumumba's personal aide. Several contemporaries indicate that Belgian intelligence had recruited Mobutu to be an informer to the government.[22]
During the 1960 talks in Brussels on Congolese independence, the US embassy held a reception for the Congolese delegation. Embassy staff were each assigned a list of delegation members to meet, and discussed their impressions afterward. The ambassador noted, "One name kept coming up. But it wasn't on anyone's list because he wasn't an official delegation member, he was Lumumba's secretary. But everyone agreed that this was an extremely intelligent man, very young, perhaps immature, but a man with great potential."[23]
Following the general election, Lumumba was tasked with creating a government. He gave Mobutu the office of Secretary of State to the Presidency. Mobutu held much influence in the final determination of the rest of the government.[24] He lost private access to Lumumba following independence, as the new prime minister grew busy and surrounded by aides and colleagues, leading the two to drift apart.[25]
Colonel Mobutu in 1960Mobutu in a 1963 visit to Israel, where he participated in a shortenedIDF paratrooper course
On 5 July 1960, soldiers of theForce Publique stationed at Camp Léopold II in Léopoldville, dissatisfied with their all-white leadership and working conditions,mutinied. The revolt spread across the region in the following days. Mobutu assisted other officials in negotiating with the mutineers to secure the release of the officers and their families.[26] On 8 July the full Council of Ministers convened in an extraordinary session under the chairmanship of PresidentJoseph Kasa-Vubu at Camp Léopold II to address the task of Africanising the garrison.[27]
The ministers debated over who would make a suitable army chief of staff. The two main candidates for the post were Minister of Youth and SportsMaurice Mpolo and Mobutu. The former had shown some influence over the mutinying troops, but Kasa-Vubu and the Bakongo ministers feared that he would enact acoup d'état if he were given power. The latter was perceived as calmer and more thoughtful.[28] Lumumba saw Mpolo as courageous, but favored Mobutu's prudence. As the discussions continued, the cabinet began to divide according to who they preferred to serve as chief of staff. Lumumba wanted to keep both men in his government and wished to avoid upsetting one of their camps of supporters.[28] In the end Mobutu was given the role and awarded the rank of colonel.[29] The following day government delegations left the capital to oversee the Africanisation of the army; Mobutu was sent toÉquateur.[30] While he was there Mpolo acted as ANC Chief of Staff.[31][32] Mobutu was affronted by this development, and upon his return to the capital he confronted Lumumba in a cabinet meeting, saying, "Either I was unworthy, and you have to dismiss me, or I faithfully accomplished my mission and so I keep my rank and functions."[32]
The British diplomatBrian Urquhart serving with the United Nations wrote: "When I first met Mobutu in July 1960, he was Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba's chief military assistant and had just promoted himself from sergeant to lieutenant-colonel. By comparison with his boss, Mobutu was a pillar of pragmatism and common sense. It was to him that we appealed when our people were arrested by Lumumba's hashish-stimulated guards. It was he who would bring up, in a disarmingly casual way, Lumumba's most outrageous requests – that the UN should, for example, meet the pay roll of the potentially mutinous Congolese army. In those early days, Mobutu seemed a comparatively sensible young man, one who might even, at least now and then, have the best interests of his newly independent country at heart."[33]
Encouraged by a Belgian government intent on maintaining its access to rich Congolese mines, secessionist violence erupted in the south. Concerned that theUnited Nations force sent to help restore order was not helping to crush the secessionists, Lumumba turned to theSoviet Union for assistance. He received massive military aid and about a thousand Soviet technical advisers within six weeks. As this was during theCold War, the US government feared that the Soviet activity was a maneuver to spread communist influence in Central Africa. Kasa-Vubu was encouraged by the US and Belgium to dismiss Lumumba, which he did on 5 September. An outraged Lumumba declared Kasa-Vubu deposed. Parliament refused to recognise the dismissals and urged reconciliation, but no agreement was reached.[citation needed]
Lumumba and Kasa-Vubu each ordered Mobutu to arrest the other. As Army Chief of Staff, Mobutu came under great pressure from multiple sources. The embassies of Western nations, which helped pay the soldiers' salaries, as well as Kasa-Vubu and Mobutu's subordinates, all favored getting rid of the Soviet presence. On 14 September Mobutu launched a bloodless coup, declaring both Kasa-Vubu and Lumumba to be "neutralised" and establishing a new government of university graduates, theCollege of Commissioners-General. Lumumba rejected this action but was forced to retire to his residence, where UN peacekeepers prevented Mobutu's soldiers from arresting him. Urquhart recalled that on the day of the coup, Mobutu showed up unannounced at the UN headquarters in Léopoldville and refused to leave, until the radio announced the coup, leading Mobutu to say over and over again "C'est moi!" ("This is me!").[33] Recognizing that Mobutu had only gone to the UN headquarters in case the coup should fail, Urquhart ordered him out.[33]
Losing confidence that the international community would support his reinstatement, Lumumba fled in late November to join his supporters inStanleyville to establish anew government. He was captured by Mobutu's troops in early December, and incarcerated at his headquarters in Thysville. However, Mobutu still considered him a threat, and transferred him to the rebellingState of Katanga on 17 January 1961. Lumumba disappeared from public view. It was later discovered that he was executed the same day by the secessionist forces ofMoise Tshombe, after Mobutu's government turned him over.[34]
Colonel Joseph-Desiré Mobutu (left) with President Joseph Kasa-Vubu, 1961
On 23 January 1961, Kasa-Vubu promoted Mobutu to major-general. Historian De Witte argues that this was a political action, "aimed to strengthen the army, the president's sole support, and Mobutu's position within the army".[35]
In 1964,Pierre Mulele led partisans in another rebellion. They quickly occupied two-thirds of the Congo. In response, the Congolese army, led by Mobutu, reconquered the entire territory through 1965.[citation needed]
Prime Minister Moise Tshombe'sCongolese National Convention had won a large majority in theMarch 1965 elections, but Kasa-Vubu appointed an anti-Tshombe leader,Évariste Kimba, as prime minister-designate. However, Parliament twice refused to confirm him. With the government in near-paralysis, Mobutu seized power in a bloodless coup on 24 November. He had turned 35 a month earlier.[36]
Under the auspices of astate of exception (regime d'exception), Mobutu assumed sweeping—almost absolute—powers for five years.[37] In his first speech upon taking power, Mobutu told a large crowd at Léopoldville's main stadium that, since politicians had brought the Congo to ruin in five years, it would take him at least that long to set things right again, and therefore there would be no more political party activity for five years.[38] On 30 November 1965 Parliament approved a measure which turned over most legislative powers to Mobutu and his cabinet, though it retained the right to review his decrees. In early March 1966 he opened a new session of Parliament by declaring that he was revoking their right of review, and two weeks later his government permanently suspended the body and assumed all of its remaining functions.[39]
A Congolese cotton shirt embellished with a portrait of Mobutu from the collection of theTropenmuseum in Amsterdam
Initially, Mobutu's government presented itself as apolitical or even anti-political. The word "politician" carried negative connotations, and became almost synonymous with someone who was wicked or corrupt. In 1966 the Corps of Volunteers of the Republic was established, a vanguard movement designed to mobilize popular support behind Mobutu, who was proclaimed the nation's "Second National Hero" after Lumumba. Despite the role he played in Lumumba's ousting, Mobutu worked to present himself as a successor to Lumumba's legacy. One of his key tenets early in his rule was "authentic Congolese nationalism". In 1966, Mobutu started renaming cities that had European names with more "authentic" African names, and in this way Léopoldville became Kinshasa, Stanleyville became Kisangani and Élisabethville becameLubumbashi.[40]
1967 marked the debut of thePopular Movement of the Revolution (MPR), which until 1990 was the nation's only legal political party. Among the themes advanced by the MPR in its doctrine, the Manifesto of N'Sele, were nationalism, revolution, and "authenticity". Revolution was described as a "truly national revolution, essentially pragmatic", which called for "the repudiation of both capitalism and communism". One of the MPR's slogans was "Neither left nor right", to which would be added "nor even center" in later years.[citation needed]
That same year, all trade unions were consolidated into a single union, theNational Union of Zairian Workers, and brought under government control. Mobutu intended for the union to serve as an instrument of support for government policy, rather than as an independent group. Independent trade unions were illegal until 1991.[citation needed]
Mobutu sworn in as President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo following the 1970 election
Facing many challenges early in his rule, Mobutu converted much opposition into submission through patronage; those he could not co-opt, he dealt with forcefully. In 1966, four cabinet members were arrested on charges of complicity in an attempted coup, tried by a military tribunal, and publicly executed in an open-air spectacle witnessed by over 50,000 people. Uprisings by former Katangan gendarmeries were crushed, as were theStanleyville mutinies of 1967 led by white mercenaries.[41] By 1970, nearly all potential threats to his authority had been smashed, and for the most part, law and order was brought to nearly all parts of the country. That year marked the pinnacle of Mobutu's legitimacy and power.[citation needed]
In 1970 KingBaudouin of Belgium made a highly successful state visit toKinshasa. That same yearpresidential andlegislative elections were held. Although the constitution allowed for the existence of two parties, the MPR was the only party allowed to nominate candidates. For the presidential election, Mobutu was the only candidate. Voting was not secret; voters chose a green paper if they supported Mobutu's candidacy, and a red paper if they opposed his candidacy. Casting a green ballot was deemed a vote for hope, while a red ballot was deemed a vote for chaos. Under the circumstances, the result was inevitable–according to official figures, Mobutu was confirmed in office with near-unanimous support, garnering 10,131,669 votes to only 157 "no" votes.[42] It later emerged that almost 30,500 more votes were cast than the actual number of registered voters.[43][44] The legislative elections were held in a similar fashion. Voters were presented with a single list from the MPR; according to official figures, an implausible 98.33% of voters voted in favor of the MPR list.[citation needed]
As he consolidated power, Mobutu set up several military forces whose sole purpose was to protect him. These included theSpecial Presidential Division,Civil Guard and Service for Action, and Military Intelligence (SNIP).[citation needed]
Embarking on a campaign of pro-Africa cultural awareness, calledauthenticité, Mobutu began renaming cities that reflected the colonial past, starting on 1 June 1966: Léopoldville became Kinshasa, Elisabethville became Lubumbashi, and Stanleyville became Kisangani. In October 1971, he renamed the country as theRepublic of Zaire.[40][45] He ordered the people to change their European names to African ones, and priests were warned that they would face five years' imprisonment if they were caughtbaptizing a Zairian child with a European name.[40] Western attire and ties were banned, and men were forced to wear aMao-style tunic known as anabacost (shorthand forà bas le costume, or "down with the suit").[46] Christmas was moved from December to June because it was more of an "authentic" date.[40]
In 1972, in accordance with his own decree of a year earlier, Mobutu renamed himselfMobutu Sese Seko Nkuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga (meaning "The all-powerful warrior who, because of his endurance and inflexible will to win, goes from conquest to conquest, leaving fire in his wake.").[47][48] Around this time, he eschewed his military uniform in favor of what would become his classic image—the tall, imposing man carrying a walking stick while wearing an abacost, thick-framed glasses, and leopard-skintoque.[citation needed]
In 1974, anew constitution consolidated Mobutu's grip on the country. It defined the MPR as the "single institution" in the country. It was officially defined as "the nation politically organized"—in essence, the state was a transmission belt for the party. All citizens automatically became members of the MPR from birth. The constitution stated that the MPR was embodied by the party's president, who was elected every seven years at its national convention. At the same time, the party president was automatically nominated as the sole candidate for a seven-year term as president of the republic; he was confirmed in office by a referendum. The document codified the emergency powers Mobutu had exercised since 1965; it vested Mobutu with "plenitude of power exercise", effectively concentrating all governing power in his hands. Mobutu was reelected three times under this system, each time by implausibly high margins of 98 percent or more. A single list of MPR candidates was returned to the legislature every five years with equally implausible margins; official figures gave the MPR list unanimous or near-unanimous support. At one of those elections, in1975, formal voting was dispensed with altogether. Instead, the election took place byacclaim; candidates were presented at public locations around the country where they could be applauded.[citation needed]
Early in his rule, Mobutu consolidated power by publicly executing political rivals, secessionists, coup plotters, and other threats to his rule. To set an example, many werehanged before large audiences. Such victims included former Prime MinisterÉvariste Kimba, who, with three cabinet members—Jérôme Anany (Defense Minister), Emmanuel Bamba (Finance Minister), and Alexandre Mahamba (Minister of Mines and Energy)—was tried in May 1966, and sent to the gallows on 30 May, before an audience of 50,000 spectators. The men were executed on charges of being in contact with Colonel Alphonse Bangala and Major Pierre Efomi, for the purpose of planning a coup. Mobutu explained the executions as follows: "One had to strike through a spectacular example, and create the conditions of regime discipline. When a chief takes a decision, he decides – period."[49]
In 1968,Pierre Mulele, Lumumba's Minister of Education and a rebel leader during the 1964Simba rebellion, was lured out of exile inBrazzaville on the belief that he would receive amnesty. Instead, he was tortured and killed by Mobutu's forces. While Mulele was still alive, his eyes were gouged out, his genitals were ripped off, and his limbs were amputated one by one.[50]
Mobutu later switched to a new tactic, buying off political rivals. He used the slogan "Keep your friends close, but your enemies closer still"[51] to describe his tactic of co-opting political opponents through bribery. A favorite Mobutu tactic was to play "musical chairs", rotating members of his government, switching the cabinet roster constantly to ensure that no one would pose a threat to his rule. Between November 1965 and April 1997, Mobutu reshuffled his cabinet 60 times.[52] The frequent cabinet reshuffles as intended encouraged insecurity in his ministers, who knew that the mercurial Mobutu would reshuffle his cabinet with no regard for efficiency and competence on the part of his ministers.[52] The frequency that men entered and left the cabinet also encouraged gross corruption because ministers never knew how long they might be in office, thus encouraging them to steal as much as possible while they were in the cabinet.[52] Another tactic was to arrest and sometimes torture dissident members of the government, only to later pardon them and reward them with high office.[52] The Congolese historian Emizet F. Kisangani wrote: "Most public officials knew that regardless of their inefficiency and degree of corruption, they could reenter the government. To hold a government position required neither a sense of management nor a good conscience. On most occasions, effectiveness and a good conscience were major obstacles to political advancement. Mobutu demanded absolute personal allegiance in return for the opportunity to accumulate wealth".[52] As early as 1970, it was estimated that Mobutu had stolen 60% of the national budget that year, marking him as one of the most corrupt leaders in Africa and the world.[52] Kisangani wrote that Mobutu created a system ofinstitutional corruption that greatly debased public morality by rewarding venality and greed.[53]
In 1972, Mobutu tried unsuccessfully to have himself namedpresident for life.[54] In June 1983, he raised himself to the rank ofMarshal;[55] the order was signed by General Likulia Bolongo.Victor Nendaka Bika, in his capacity as Vice-President of the Bureau of the Central Committee, second authority in the land, addressed a speech filled with praise for President Mobutu.
Mobutu Sese Seko in army fatigues, 1978
To gain the revenues of Congolese resources, Mobutu initiallynationalized foreign-owned firms and forced European investors out of the country. But in many cases he handed the management of these firms to relatives and close associates, who quickly exercised their own corruption and stole the companies' assets. In 1973–1974, Mobutu launched his "Zairianization" campaign, nationalising foreign owned businesses that were handed over to Zairians.[40] In October 1973, the Araboil shock ended the "long summer" of prosperity in the West that had begun in 1945, and sent the world economy into its sharpest contraction since the Great Depression. One consequence of the oil shock and the resulting global recession was that the price of copper dropped by 50% over the course of 1974, which proved to be a disaster for Zaire as copper was its most important export.[40] The American historian Thomas Odom wrote because of the collapse in copper prices Zaire went from "prosperity to bankruptcy almost overnight" in 1974.[40] The economic collapse forced Zaire to turn towards the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to help it manage its debts which could no longer be serviced.[40] Seeking an alternative source of support as the auditors for the IMF discovered major corruption within the Zairian finances, Mobutu visited China in 1974 and returned wearing a Mao jacket and the new title ofCitoyen Mobutu ("Citizen Mobutu").[56] Influenced by the Cultural Revolution, Mobutu shifted to the left and announced his intention to "radicalize the Zairian revolution".[56] The businesses that Mobutu had just handed over to Zairians were in turn nationalized and placed under state control.[56] At the same time, Mobutu imposed a 50% salary cut to state employees, which led a failed coup attempt against him in June 1975.[56]
President ofUgandaIdi Amin visits Zaire and meets Mobutu during theShaba I conflict in 1977
By 1977, Mobutu's nationalizations had precipitated such an economic slump that Mobutu was forced to try to woo foreign investors back.[57] Katangan rebels based inAngola invaded Zaire that year, in retaliation for Mobutu's support for anti-MPLA rebels. France airlifted 1,500 Moroccan paratroopers into the country and repulsed the rebels, endingShaba I. The rebels attacked Zaire again, in greater numbers, in theShaba II invasion of 1978. The governments of Belgium and France deployed troops with logistical support from the United States and defeated the rebels again. The poor performance of the Zairian Army during both Shaba invasions, which humiliated Mobutu by forcing him to ask for foreign troops, did not lead to military reforms.[58] However, Mobutu reduced the size of the Army from 51,000 troops in 1978 down to 23,000 troops in 1980.[58] By 1980, it was estimated that about 90% of the Zairian Army were Ngbandi as Mobutu did not trust the other peoples of Zaire to serve in the Army.[58] The most loyal and best of Mobutu's units were his bodyguards, the Israeli-trainedDivision Spéciale Présidentielle that was made up exclusively of Ngbandi and was always commanded by one of Mobutu's relatives.[59]
Mobutu was re-elected in single-candidate elections in1977 and1984. He spent most of his time increasing his personal fortune, which in 1988 was estimated to amount to no less than US$50 million.[60] He held most of it out of the country inSwiss banks (however, a comparatively small $3.4 million was declared found in Swiss banks after he was ousted.[61]). This was almost equivalent to the amount of the country's foreign debt at the time. In a speech that he delivered on 20 May 1976 in a football stadium in Kinshasa that was filled with some 70,000 people, Mobutu openly accepted petty corruption, stating: "If you want to steal, steal a little in a nice way, but if you steal too much to become rich overnight, you will be caught".[62] By 1989, the government was forced to default on international loans from Belgium.
Mobutu owned a fleet ofMercedes-Benz vehicles that he used to travel between his numerous palaces, while the nation's roads deteriorated and many of his people starved. The infrastructure virtually collapsed, and many public service workers went months without being paid. Most of the money was siphoned off to Mobutu, his family, and top political and military leaders. Only theSpecial Presidential Division – on whom his physical safety depended – was paid adequately or regularly. A popular saying that "the civil servants pretended to work while the state pretended to pay them" expressed this grim reality.[63] TheForces Armées Zaïroises (FAZ) suffered from low morale made worse by irregular salaries, dismal living conditions, shortages of supplies and a venal officer corps.[64] The soldiers of the FAZ behaved very much like a brutal occupying force who supported themselves by robbing the civilian population of Zaire.[64] A recurring feature of Mobutu's rule were the seemingly endless number of roadblocks put by the FAZ who extorted money from the drivers of any passing automobile or lorries.[64]
Another feature of Mobutu's economic mismanagement, directly linked to the way he and his friends siphoned off so much of the country's wealth, was rampant inflation. The rapid decline in the real value of salaries strongly encouraged a culture of corruption and dishonesty among public servants of all kinds.[citation needed]
Mobutu was known for his opulent lifestyle. He cruised on the Congo on his yachtKamanyola. InGbadolite, he erected a palace, the "Versailles of the jungle".[65] For shopping trips to Paris, he would charter aConcorde fromAir France; he had theGbadolite Airport constructed with a runway long enough to accommodate the Concorde's extended take-off and landing requirements.[66] In 1989, Mobutu chartered Concorde aircraft F-BTSD for a 26 June – 5 July trip to give a speech at theUnited Nations in New York City, then again on 16 July forFrench bicentennial celebrations in Paris (where he was a guest of PresidentFrançois Mitterrand), and on 19 September for a flight from Paris to Gbadolite, and another nonstop flight from Gbadolite toMarseille with the youth choir of Zaire.[67]
Mobutu's rule earned a reputation as one of the world's foremost examples ofkleptocracy andnepotism.[68] Close relatives and fellow members of the Ngbandi tribe were awarded high positions in the military and government, and he groomed his eldest son, Nyiwa, to succeed him as president;[69] however, Nyiwa died fromAIDS in 1994.[70]
Mobutu led one of the most enduring autocracies in Africa and amassed a personal fortune estimated to be over US$50 million by selling his nation's rich natural resources while the people lived in poverty.[71][72] While in office, he formed atotalitarian regime responsible for numeroushuman rights violations, attempted to purge the country of all Belgian cultural influences, and maintained ananti-communist stance to gain positive international support.[38][73]
10 Makuta coin depicting Mobutu Sese Seko
Mobutu was the subject of one of the most pervasivepersonality cults of the twentieth century. The evening newscast opened with an image of him descending through clouds like a god. His portraits were hung in many public places, and government officials wore lapel pins bearing his portrait. He held such titles as "Father of the Nation", "Messiah", "Guide of the Revolution", "Helmsman", "Founder", "Savior of the People", and "Supreme Combatant". In the1996 documentary of the1974 Foreman–Ali fight in Zaire, dancers receiving the fighters can be heard chanting "Sese Seko, Sese Seko". At one point, in early 1975, the media were forbidden to refer to anyone other than Mobutu by name; others were referred to only by the positions they held.[74][75]
Mobutu successfully capitalized onCold War tensions among European nations and the United States. He gained significant support from the West and its international organizations such as theInternational Monetary Fund.[76]
In the late 1970s, the West Germany companyOTRAG was developing a program to send peaceful satellites into space at lower costs, but a 1954 amendment to theTreaty of Brussels prevented them from developing and launching missiles in Germany.[77] As a result, they paid Mobutu $130 million to develop their program in Zaire.[78] In a 1978 agreement with OTRAG, Mobutu gave the company a 25-year rented plot of land in Zaire.[77] The first rocket,OTRAG-1, was launched on May 18, 1977,[77] while Mobutu watched from a distance.[78] The rocket took off successfully, but shortly afterwards fell and crashed back down to the ground.[77][78]
By June 6 of 1978, two more rockets had been launched and crashed in Zaire. Nevertheless Mobutu continued to promote the program, stating that 200 Zairians were employed by the project and the country would receive royalties from future rocket sales.[79] Two years after the launch of the first rocket, the Soviet Union alleged that former Nazi scientists were involved with OTRAG, and became convinced that the company was secretly gathering military intelligence. Mobutu succumbed to Soviet pressure, ended the program, and cut ties with OTRAG.[77]
Relations between Zaire and Belgium wavered between close ties and open hostility during the Mobutu years. More often than not, Belgian decision-makers responded indifferently when Mobutu acted against the interests of Belgium, partly explained by the highly divided Belgian political class.[80] Relations soured early in Mobutu's rule over disputes involving the substantial Belgian commercial and industrial holdings in the country, but they warmed soon afterwards. Mobutu and his family were received as personal guests of the Belgian monarch in 1968, and a convention for scientific and technical cooperation was signed that same year. DuringKing Baudouin's highly successful visit toKinshasa in 1970, a treaty of friendship and cooperation between the two countries was signed. However, Mobutu tore up the treaty in 1974 in protest at Belgium's refusal to ban an anti-Mobutu book written by left-wing lawyer Jules Chomé.[81] Mobutu's "Zairianisation" policy, which expropriated foreign-held businesses and transferred their ownership to Zairians, added to the strain.[82] Mobutu maintained several personal contacts with prominent Belgians.Edmond Leburton, Belgian prime minister between 1973 and 1974, was someone greatly admired by the President.[83] Alfred Cahen, career diplomat andchef de cabinet of ministerHenri Simonet, became a personal friend of Mobutu when he was a student at theUniversité Libre de Bruxelles.[84] Relations with King Baudouin were mostly cordial, until Mobutu released a bold statement about theBelgian royal family. Prime MinisterWilfried Martens recalled in his memoirs that the palace gates closed completely after Mobutu published a handwritten letter of the King.[85] Because of that, Mobutu was one of only two heads of state who did not receive an invitation to the funeral of Baudouin, the other beingSaddam Hussein ofIraq. Next to friendly ties with Belgians residing in Belgium, Mobutu had a number of Belgian advisors at his disposal. Some of them, such as Hugues Leclercq andColonel Willy Mallants, were interviewed inThierry Michel's documentaryMobutu, King of Zaire.[citation needed]
As then the second most populous French-speaking country in the world (it has subsequently come to have a larger population than France) and the most populous one insub-Saharan Africa,[86] Zaire was of great strategic interest to France.[87] During theFirst Republic era, France tended to side with the conservative and federalist forces, as opposed to unitarists such as Lumumba.[86] Shortly after theKatangan secession was successfully crushed, Zaire (then called the Republic of the Congo) signed a treaty of technical and cultural cooperation with France. During thepresidency ofCharles de Gaulle, diplomatic relations between the two countries gradually grew stronger and closer due to their many shared geopolitical interests. In 1971, Finance MinisterValéry Giscard d'Estaing paid a visit to Zaire; later, after becoming France's president, he would develop a close personal relationship with President Mobutu, and under his leadership, France became one of the Mobutu regime's closest and most important foreign allies.[88] During the Shaba invasions, France sided firmly with Mobutu: during thefirst Shaba invasion, France airlifted 1,500 Moroccan troops to Zaire, and the rebels were repulsed;[89] a year later, during thesecond Shaba invasion, France itself (along with Belgium) would sendFrench Foreign Legion paratroopers (2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment) to aid Mobutu.[90][91][92]
Initially, Zaire's relationship with the People's Republic of China was no better than its relationship with the Soviet Union. Memories of Chinese aid to Mulele and other Maoist rebels in Kwilu province during the ill-fatedSimba Rebellion remained fresh on Mobutu's mind. He also opposed seating the PRC at the United Nations. However, by 1972, he began to see the Chinese in a different light, as a counterbalance to both the Soviet Union as well as his intimate ties with the United States,Israel, and South Africa.[93][94] In November 1972, Mobutu extended diplomatic recognition to the Chinese (as well asEast Germany andNorth Korea). The following year, Mobutu paid a visit to Beijing, where he met with chairmanMao Zedong and received promises of $100 million in technical aid.[citation needed]
In 1974, Mobutu made a surprise visit to both China and North Korea, during the time he was originally scheduled to visit the Soviet Union. Upon returning home, both his politics and rhetoric became markedly more radical; it was around this time that Mobutu began criticizing Belgium and the United States (the latter for not doing enough, in Mobutu's opinion, to combat white minority rule in South Africa and Rhodesia), introduced the "obligatory civic work" program calledsalongo, and initiated "radicalization" (an extension of 1973's "Zairianization" policy). Mobutu even borrowed a title – the Helmsman – from Mao. Incidentally, late 1974 to early 1975 was when his personality cult reached its peak.[citation needed]
China and Zaire shared a common goal in central Africa, namely doing everything in their power to halt Soviet gains in the area. Accordingly, both Zaire and China covertly funneled aid to theNational Liberation Front of Angola (and later, theNational Union for the Total Independence of Angola) in order to prevent their former allies, thePeople's Movement for the Liberation of Angola, who were supported and augmented byCuban forces, from coming to power. The Cubans, who exercised considerable influence in Africa in support of leftist and anti-imperialist forces, were heavily sponsored by the Soviet Union during the period. In addition to invitingHolden Roberto, the leader of the National Liberation Front of Angola, and his guerrillas to Beijing for training, China provided weapons and money to the rebels. Zaire itself launched an ill-fated, pre-emptive invasion of Angola in a bid to install a pro-Kinshasa government, but was repulsed by Cuban troops. The expedition was a fiasco with far-reaching repercussions, most notably the Shaba I and Shaba II invasions, both of which China opposed. China sent military aid to Zaire during both invasions, and accused the Soviet Union and Cuba (who were alleged to have supported the Shaban rebels, although this was and remains speculation) of working to de-stabilize central Africa.[citation needed]
Mobutu's relationship with the Soviet Union was frosty and tense. A staunch anti-communist, he was not anxious to recognize the Soviets; the USSR had supported—though mostly in words—both Patrice Lumumba, Mobutu's democratically elected predecessor, and the Simba rebellion. However, to project a non-aligned image, he did renew ties in 1967; the first Soviet ambassador arrived and presented his credentials in 1968.[95] Mobutu did, however, join the United States in condemning theSoviet invasion of Czechoslovakia that year.[96] Mobutu viewed the Soviet presence as advantageous for two reasons: it allowed him to maintain an image of non-alignment, and it provided a convenient scapegoat for problems at home. For example, in 1970, he expelled four Soviet diplomats for carrying out "subversive activities", and in 1971, twenty Soviet officials were declaredpersona non grata for allegedly instigating student demonstrations atLovanium University.[97]
Moscow was the only major world capital Mobutu never visited, although he did accept an invitation to do so in 1974. For reasons unknown, he cancelled the visit at the last minute, and toured the People's Republic of China and North Korea instead.[98]
Relations cooled further in 1975, when the two countries found themselves on opposing sides in theAngolan Civil War. This had a dramatic effect on Zairian foreign policy for the next decade; bereft of his claim to African leadership (Mobutu was one of the few leaders who refused to recognize the Marxist government of Angola), Mobutu turned increasingly to the US and its allies, adopting pro-American stances on such issues as theSoviet invasion of Afghanistan, andIsrael's position in international organizations.[citation needed]
Mobutu Sese Seko andRichard Nixon in Washington, D.C., October 1973Mobutu Sese Seko and U.S. PresidentGeorge H. W. Bush in Washington, D.C., 1989.
For the most part, Zaire enjoyed warm relations with the United States. The United States was the third largest donor of aid to Zaire (after Belgium and France), and Mobutu befriended several US presidents, includingRichard Nixon,Ronald Reagan, andGeorge H. W. Bush. Relations did cool significantly in 1974–1975 over Mobutu's increasingly radical rhetoric (which included his scathing denunciations of American foreign policy),[99] and plummeted to an all-time low in the summer of 1975, when Mobutu accused theCentral Intelligence Agency of plotting his overthrow and arrested eleven senior Zairian generals and several civilians, and condemned (in absentia) a former head of the Central Bank (Albert Ndele).[99] However, many people viewed these charges with skepticism; in fact, one of Mobutu's staunchest critics,Nzongola-Ntalaja, speculated that Mobutu invented the plot as an excuse to purge the military of talented officers who might otherwise pose a threat to his rule.[100] In spite of these hindrances, the chilly relationship quickly thawed when both countries found each other supporting the same side during the Angolan Civil War.[citation needed]
Because of Mobutu's poor human rights record, theCarter Administration put some distance between itself and theKinshasa government;[101] even so, Zaire received nearly half the foreign aid Carter allocated tosub-Saharan Africa.[102] During the first Shaba invasion, the United States played a relatively inconsequential role; its belated intervention consisted of little more than the delivery of non-lethal supplies. But during the second Shaba invasion, the US played a much more active and decisive role by providing transportation and logistical support to the French and Belgian paratroopers that were deployed to aid Mobutu against the rebels. Carter echoed Mobutu's (unsubstantiated) charges of Soviet and Cuban aid to the rebels, until it was apparent that no hard evidence existed to verify his claims.[103] In 1980, theUS House of Representatives voted to terminate military aid to Zaire, but theUS Senate reinstated the funds, in response to pressure from Carter and American business interests in Zaire.[104]
Mobutu enjoyed a very warm relationship with theReagan Administration, through financial donations. During Reagan's presidency, Mobutu visited theWhite House three times, and criticism of Zaire's human rights record by the US was effectively muted. During a state visit by Mobutu in 1983, Reagan praised the Zairian strongman as "a voice of good sense and goodwill".[105]
Mobutu also had a cordial relationship with Reagan's successor, George H. W. Bush; he was the first African head of state to visit Bush at theWhite House.[106] Even so, Mobutu's relationship with the US radically changed shortly afterward with the end of theCold War. With theSoviet Union gone, there was no longer any reason to support Mobutu as a bulwark against communism. Accordingly, the US and other Western powers began pressuring Mobutu to democratize the regime. Regarding the change in US attitude to his regime, Mobutu bitterly remarked: "I am the latest victim of the cold war, no longer needed by the US. The lesson is that my support for American policy counts for nothing."[107] In 1993, Mobutu was denied avisa by theUS State Department after he sought to visit Washington, D.C.
Mobutu also had friends in America outside Washington. Mobutu was befriended by televangelistPat Robertson, who promised to try to get the State Department to lift its ban on the African leader.[108]
Gui Polspoel with Frédéric François and Mobutu inGbadolite, 1992
In May 1990, due to the ending of theCold War and a change in the international political climate, as well as economic problems and domestic unrest, Mobutu agreed to give up the MPR's monopoly of power. In early May 1990, students studying at theLubumbashi campus of theNational University of Zaire protested against Mobutu's regime, demanding his resignation.[109] On the night of 11 May 1990, electricity was cut off to the campus while a special military unit calledLes Hiboux ("The Owls") were sent in, armed with machetes and bayonets.[109] By the dawn of 12 May 1990, at least 290 students had been killed.[109] The massacre led to the nations of theEuropean Economic Community (now the European Union), the United States, and Canada to end all non-humanitarian aid to Zaire, which marked the beginning of the end of Western support for Mobutu.[109]
Mobutu appointed a transitional government that would lead to promised elections but he retained substantial powers. Following the1991 riots in Kinshasa by unpaid soldiers, Mobutu brought opposition figures into a coalition government, but still connived to retain control of the security services and important ministries. Factional divisions led to the creation of two governments in 1993, one pro- and one anti-Mobutu. The anti-Mobutu government was headed byLaurent Monsengwo andÉtienne Tshisekedi of theUnion for Democracy and Social Progress (UDPS).[citation needed]
The economic situation was still dismal, and in 1994 the two groups merged into the High Council of Republic – Parliament of Transition (HCR-PT). Mobutu appointedKengo Wa Dondo, an advocate ofausterity andfree-market reforms, as prime minister. During this period, Mobutu was becoming increasingly physically frail and during one of his trips to Europe for medical treatment, ethnicTutsis captured much of eastern Zaire.
The seeds of Mobutu's downfall were sown in theRwandan genocide, when about 800,000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus were massacred by about 200,000 Hutu extremists aided by the Rwandan government in 1994. The genocide ended when the Tutsi-dominatedRwandan Patriotic Front seized the whole country, leading hundreds of thousands of Hutus including many of the genocidal killers, to flee into refugee camps in eastern Zaire. Mobutu welcomed the Hutu extremists as personal guests and allowed them to establish military and political bases in the eastern territories, from where they attacked and killed ethnic Tutsis across the border in Rwanda and in Zaire itself, ostensibly to prepare for a renewed offensive back into Rwanda. The new Rwandan government began sending military aid to the Zairian Tutsis in response. The resulting conflict began to destabilize eastern Zaire as a whole.[citation needed]
When Mobutu's government issued an order in November 1996 forcing Tutsis to leave Zaire on penalty of death, the ethnic Tutsis in Zaire,[110] known asBanyamulenge, were the focal point of a rebellion. From eastern Zaire, the rebels, aided by foreign government forces under the leadership of PresidentYoweri Museveni ofUganda and Rwandan Minister of DefensePaul Kagame launched an offensive to overthrow Mobutu, joining forces with locals opposed to him underLaurent-Désiré Kabila as they marched west toward Kinshasa. Burundi and Angola also supported the growing rebellion, which mushroomed into theFirst Congo War.[citation needed]
Ailing with cancer, Mobutu was inSwitzerland for treatment,[111] and he was unable to coordinate the resistance which crumbled in front of the march. The rebel forces would have completely overrun the country far sooner than it ultimately did if not for the country's decrepit infrastructure. In most areas, no paved roads existed; the only vehicle paths were irregularly used dirt roads.[citation needed]
Mobutu went into temporary exile inTogo, until PresidentGnassingbé Eyadéma insisted that Mobutu leave the country a few days later.[113] From 23 May 1997, he lived mostly inRabat, Morocco.[114] He died there on 7 September 1997 fromprostate cancer at the age of 66. He is interred in an above ground mausoleum at Rabat, in the Christian cemetery known as Cimetière Européen.[citation needed]
Mobutu was married twice. He married his first wife,Marie-Antoinette Gbiatibwa Gogbe Yetene, in 1955.[116] They had nine children. She died ofheart failure on 22 October 1977 inGenolier,Switzerland, at the age of 36. On 1 May 1980, he married his mistress,Bobi Ladawa, on the eve of a visit byPope John Paul II, thus legitimizing his relationship in the eyes of theChurch. Two of his sons from his first marriage died during his lifetime, Nyiwa (d. 16 September 1994) and Konga (d. 1992). Three more died in the years following his death:Kongulu (d. 24 September 1998), Manda (d. 27 November 2004), and Ndokula (d. 4 November 2011).[70] His elder son from his second marriage,Nzanga Mobutu, now the head of the family, finished fourth in the2006 presidential elections and later served in the government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo as Minister of State and Deputy Prime Minister. Another son of his, Giala, has also served in the government of the Democratic Republic of Congo as both a member of the National Assembly and the Senate. A daughter, Yakpwa (nicknamed Yaki), was briefly married to a Belgian, Pierre Janssen, who later wrote a book[117] that described Mobutu's lifestyle in vivid detail.
Mobutu was the subject of the three-part 1999 Belgian documentaryMobutu, King of Zaire byThierry Michel. Mobutu was also featured in the 2000 feature filmLumumba, directed byRaoul Peck, which detailed the pre-coup and coup years from the perspective of Lumumba. Mobutu also featured in the 1996 American documentaryWhen We Were Kings, which centred on the famedRumble in the Jungle boxing bout betweenGeorge Foreman andMuhammad Ali for the 1974heavyweight championship of the world which took place inKinshasa during Mobutu's rule. In the 1978 war adventure filmThe Wild Geese, the villain, General Ndofa, described in the film as an extremely corrupt leader of a copper-rich nation in central Africa, was a thinly disguised version of Mobutu.[119]
Mobutu also might be considered[original research?] as the inspiration behind some of the characters in the works of the poetry ofWole Soyinka, the novelA Bend in the River byV. S. Naipaul, andAnthills of the Savannah byChinua Achebe.William Close, father of actressGlenn Close, was once a personal physician to Mobutu and wrote a book focusing on his service in Zaire.Barbara Kingsolver's 1998 historical novelThe Poisonwood Bible depicts the events of theCongo Crisis from a fictional standpoint, featuring the role of Mobutu in the crisis. Mobutu was played by the Belgian actorMarc Zinga in the 2011 filmMister Bob. The French critic Isabelle Hanne praised Zinga's performance as Mobutu, writing he "brilliantly embodies this Shakespearian and bloodthirsty figure."[120] Mobutu was included as an additional promotional card in the card-driven strategy gameTwilight Struggle. His card, when played, increases thestability of the country then known as Zaire and increases the influence of the United States over the African nation.[citation needed]
Mobutu's palace in his hometown ofGbadolite, ransacked after he was deposed and exiled. Photographedc. 2010
According to Mobutu'sNew York Times obituary: "He built his political longevity on three pillars: violence, cunning, and the use of state funds to buy off enemies. His systematic looting of the national treasury and major industries gave birth to the term 'kleptocracy' to describe a rule of official corruption that reputedly made him one of the world's wealthiest heads of state."[121]
In 2011,Time magazine described him as the "archetypal African dictator".[11]
Mobutu was infamous for amassing the equivalent of millions of US dollars from his country. According to the most conservative estimates, he stole US$50–125 million from his country, and some sources put the figure as high as US$150 million.[122] According to Pierre Janssen, the ex-husband of Mobutu's daughter Yaki, Mobutu had no concern for the cost of the expensive gifts he gave away to his cronies. Janssen married Yaki in a lavish ceremony that included three orchestras, a US$65,000 wedding cake, and a giant fireworks display. Yaki wore a US$70,000 wedding gown and US$3 million worth of jewels. Janssen wrote a book describing Mobutu's daily routine, which included several daily bottles of wine, retainers flown in from overseas, and lavish meals.[75]
Mobutu had really staged a funeral for a generation of African leadership of which he—the Dinosaur, as he had long been known—was the paragon: the client dictator ofCold Warneocolonialism, monomaniacal, perfectly corrupt, and absolutely ruinous to his nation.
Mobutu was instrumental in bringing theRumble in the Jungle boxing match betweenMuhammad Ali andGeorge Foreman to Zaire on 30 October 1974. According to the documentaryWhen We Were Kings, promoterDon King promised each fighter five million dollars (U.S.) for the fight. To this end, King offered the bout to any African country that put up the money to host it, in exchange for recognition. Mobutu was willing to fund the ten million dollar purse and host the bout, in order to gain international recognition and legitimacy in the process. Mobutu gained Zaire and its people considerable publicity in the weeks even before the televised bout, as worldwide attention focused on his country. According to a quote in the film, Ali supposedly said: "Some countries go to war to get their names out there, and wars cost a lot more than ten million (dollars)." On 22 September 1974, Mobutu presented the rebuilt20 May Stadium, a multi-million-dollar sports project constructed to host the Ali-Foreman boxing card, to the Zaire Ministry of Youth and Sport, and to the people of Zaire.[124]
^The name translates as "the warrior who goes from conquest to conquest, leaving fire in his path", "the warrior who leaves a trail of fire in his path", or "the warrior who knows no defeat because of his endurance and inflexible will and is all powerful, leaving fire in his wake as he goes from conquest to conquest".
^Vieira, Daviel Lazure: Precolonial Imaginaries and Colonial Legacies in Mobutu's "Authentic" Zaire in: Exploitation and Misrule in Colonial and Postcolonial Africa, (edited by) Kalu, Kenneth and Falola, Toyin, pp. 165–191, Palgrave Macmillan, 2019
^David F. Schmitz, The United States and Right-Wing Dictatorships, 1965–1989, pp. 9–36, 2006, Cambridge University Press
^"Mobutu Sese Seko".The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia. Columbia University Press. 2012.Archived from the original on 8 May 2013. Retrieved30 April 2013.
^Crawford Young, Thomas Edwin Turner, The Rise and Decline of the Zairian State, p. 210, 1985, University of Wisconsin Press
^abTharoor, Ishaan (20 October 2011)."Mobutu Sese Seko".Top 15 Toppled Dictators. Time Magazine. Archived fromthe original on 22 October 2011. Retrieved30 April 2013.
^ This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain. Lemarchand, René (December 1990). "Mobutu's Second Coming". In Meditz, Sandra W.; Merrill, Tim (eds.).Zaire: A country study.Federal Research Division,Library of Congress.
^ This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain. Turner, Thomas (December 1990). "The Party-State as a System of Rule". In Meditz, Sandra W.; Merrill, Tim (eds.).Zaire: A country study.Federal Research Division,Library of Congress.
^"Parliament Stripped of All Power by Mobutu: Congo Chief Expected to Decree Budget Ratification and Reduce Provinces to 14".The Los Angeles Times. Associated Press. 23 March 1966. p. 18.
^Other translations of his name include "the all-powerful warrior who, because of his endurance and inflexible will to win, will go from conquest to conquest leaving fire in his wake", "the earthy, the peppery, all-powerful warrior who, by his endurance and will to win, goes from contest to contest leaving fire in his wake" and "the man who flies from victory to victory and leaves nothing behind him"<http://www.plexoft.com/SBF/N04.html#SeseArchived 7 August 2004 at theWayback Machine> and "the all-powerful warrior who goes from conquest to conquest, leaving fire in his wake". (Wrong, p. 4)
^Callagy, Thomas M. (1983)South Africa in Southern Africa: The Intensifying Vortex of Violence. Praeger.ISBN0030603064
^Leslie, Winsome J. (1993) "Zaire in the International Arena" inZaire: Continuity and Political Change in an Oppressive State.Westview Press.ISBN0-86531-298-2
Burke, Kyle (2018).Revolutionaries for the Right Anticommunist Internationalism and Paramilitary Warfare in the Cold War. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.ISBN9781469640747.
Callaghy, Thomas M.Politics and Culture in Zaire. Center for Political Studies. ASIN B00071MTTW
Hoskyns, Catherine (1965).The Congo Since Independence: January 1960 – December 1961. London: Oxford University Press.OCLC414961.
Kanza, Thomas R. (1994).The Rise and Fall of Patrice Lumumba: Conflict in the Congo (expanded ed.). Rochester, Vermont: Schenkman Books, Inc.ISBN978-0-87073-901-9.
Kelly, Sean.America's Tyrant: The CIA and Mobutu of Zaire. American University Press.ISBN1-879383-17-9
Mwakikagile, Godfrey.Nyerere and Africa: End of an Era, 2006, Chapter Six: "Congo in The 1960s: The Bleeding Heart of Africa." New Africa Press, South Africa.ISBN978-0-9802534-1-2; Mwakikagile, Godfrey.Africa is in A Mess: What Went Wrong and What Should Be Done, 2006. New Africa Press.ISBN978-0-9802534-7-4
Nzongola-Ntalaja, Georges.The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Zed Books.ISBN1-84277-053-5
Odom, Thomas Paul (1993).Shaba II The French and Belgian Intervention in Zaire in 1978. Fort Leavenworth: U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, Combat Studies Institute.ISBN9781839310973.
Reid, Stuart A. (2023).The Lumumba Plot. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.ISBN9781524748814.
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