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  Mixtec king and warlordEight Deer Jaguar Claw (right) Meeting with Four Jaguar, in a depiction from the pre-ColumbianCodex Zouche-Nuttall. | |
| Total population | |
|---|---|
| Approximately 830,000[1][2] | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
 Mexico (Oaxaca,Puebla,Guerrero,Chiapas) United States | |
| Languages | |
| Mixtec, Spanish | |
| Religion | |
| Roman Catholicism with elements of traditional beliefs | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
| Zapotecs,Trique |
| People | Mixtec ñuù savi, nayívi savi, ñuù davi, nayivi davi |
|---|---|
| Language | Mixtec sa'an davi, da'an davi, tu'un savi,.. |
| Country | Mixteca Ñuu Savi, Ñuu Djau, Ñuu Davi,.. |
TheMixtecs (/ˈmiːstɛks,ˈmiːʃtɛks/),[3] orMixtecos, are IndigenousMesoamerican peoples of Mexico inhabiting the region known asLa Mixteca ofOaxaca andPuebla as well as La Montaña Region andCosta Chica Regions of the state ofGuerrero. TheMixtec culture was the main Mixtec civilization, which lasted from around 1500 BCE until being conquered by the Spanish in 1523.
The Mixtec region is generally divided into three subregions based on geography: theMixteca Alta (Upper Mixtec or Ñuu Savi Sukun), theMixteca Baja (Lower Mixtec or Ñuu I'ni), and theMixteca Costa (Coastal Mixtec or Ñuu Andivi). The Alta is drier with higher elevations, while the Baja is lower in elevation, hot but dry, and the Costa is also low in elevation but much more humid and tropical. The Alta has seen the most study by archaeologists, with evidence for human settlement going back to theArchaic and EarlyFormative periods.[4] The first urbanized sites emerged here. Long considered to be part of the larger Mixteca region, groups living in the Baja were probably more culturally related to neighboring peoples in Eastern Guerrero than they were to the Mixtecs of the Alta.[5] They even had their own hieroglyphic writing system called ñuiñe.[6] The Costa only came under control of the Mixtecs during the military campaigns of the Mixtec cultural heroEight Deer Jaguar Claw. Originally fromTilantongo in the Alta, Eight Deer and his armies conquered several major and minor kingdoms on their way to the coast, establishing the capital ofTututepec in the Lower Río Verde valley. Previously, the Costa had been primarily occupied by theChatinos.
Inpre-Columbian times, some Mixtec kingdoms competed and allied with each other and withZapotec kingdoms in the Central Valleys. Like the rest of theIndigenous peoples of Mexico, the Mixtecs wereconquered by the Spanish invaders and their Indigenous allies in the 16th century. Pre-Columbian Mixtecs numbered around 1.5 million.[7] Today there are approximately 800,000 Mixtec people in Mexico, and there are also large populations in the United States. The Mixtec languages form a major branch of theOto-Manguean language family.
The term Mixtec (Mixteco in Spanish) comes from theNahuatl wordmixtecah[miʃˈtekaʔ], "cloud people". There are many names that the Mixtecs have for naming themselves:ñuù savi, nayívi savi, ñuù davi, nayivi davi.[pronunciation?] etc. All these denominations can be translated as 'the land of the rain'.[8] The historic homeland of Mixtec people is La Mixteca, called in Mixtec languageÑuu Savi,[pronunciation?]Ñuu Djau,[pronunciation?]Ñuu Davi,[pronunciation?] etc., depending on the local variant. They call their languagesa'an davi,[pronunciation?]da'an davi[pronunciation?] ortu'un savi.[pronunciation?]
Inpre-Columbian times, the Mixtec were one of the major civilizations ofMesoamerica. Important ancient centers of the Mixtec include the ancient capital ofTilantongo, as well as the sites ofAchiutla,Cuilapan,Huajuapan,Mitla,Tlaxiaco,Tututepec,Juxtlahuaca, and Yucuñudahui. The Mixtecs also made major constructions at the ancient city ofMonte Albán (which had originated as aZapotec city before the Mixtecs gained control of it). The work of Mixtec artisans who produced work instone, wood, and metal was well regarded throughout ancient Mesoamerica.
According to West, "the Mixtec of Oaxaca...were the foremost goldsmiths of Mesoamerica," which included the "lost-wax casting of gold and its alloys."[9]
At the height of theAztec Empire, many Indigenous people in Oaxaca, including the Mixtecs and Zapotecs, would suffer under at the hands of theAztecs.[10] In the 1450s, Mixtecs would be weakened after the Aztec armies crossed the mountains into the Valley of Oaxaca with the intention of extending their hegemony.[10] Aztec forces triumphed over the Mixtecs in 1458.[10] In 1486, the Aztecs established a fort on the hill of Huaxyácac (now called El Fortín), overlooking the present city of Oaxaca, which allowed the Aztecs to enforcetribute collection from the Mixtecs and Zapotecs.[10] However, not all Mixtec towns becamevassals. The Mixtecs put up some resistance to Spanish forces led byPedro de Alvarado.[11] However, they would be subdued by the Spanish and their central Mexican allies led byFrancisco de Orozco in 1521.[10] Upon Orozco's arrival to the Valley of Oaxaca on November 25, 1521, the Mixtecs would be peacefully submit to Spanish rule, though some resistance would continue inAntequera before ending by the end of 1521.[10]
Mixtecs have migrated to various parts of both Mexico and the United States. In recent years a large exodus of Indigenous peoples from Oaxaca, such as theZapotec andTriqui, has seen them emerge as one of the most numerous groups ofAmerindians in the United States. As of 2011, an estimated 150,000 Mixteco people were living in California, and 25,000 to 30,000 in New York City.[12] Large Mixtec communities exist in theborder cities ofTijuana, Baja California, San Diego, California andTucson, Arizona. Mixtec communities are generally described as transnational or trans-border because of their ability to maintain and reaffirm social ties between their native homelands and diasporic communities. (See:Mixtec transnational migration.)
There is considerable documentation in the Mixtec (Ñudzahui) native language for the colonial era, which has been studied as part of theNew Philology. Mixtec documentation indicates parallels between many Indigenous social and political structures with those in the Nahua areas, but published research on the Mixtecs does not primarily focus on economic matters. There is considerable Mixtec documentation for land issues, but sparse for market activity, perhaps because Indigenous cabildos did not regulate commerce or mediate economic disputes except for land.[13] Long-distance trade existed in the prehispanic era and continued in Indigenous hands in the early colonial. In the second half of the colonial period, there were bilingual Mixtec merchants, dealing in both Spanish and Indigenous goods, who operated regionally. However, in the Mixteca “by the eighteenth century, commerce was dominated by Spaniards in all but the most local venues of exchange, involving the sale of agricultural commodities and Indigenous crafts or the resale of imported goods.”.[14]
Despite the development of a local exchange economy, many Spaniards with economic interests in Oaxaca, including “[s]ome of the Mixteca priests, merchants, and landowners maintained permanent residence in Puebla, and labor for theobrajes (textile workshops) of the city of Puebla in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was sometimes recruited from peasant villages in the Mixteca."[15] There is evidence of community litigation against Mixtec caciques who leased land to Spaniards and the growth of individually contracted wage labor. Mixtec documentation from the late eighteenth century indicates that "most caciques were simply well-to-do investors in Spanish-style enterprises"; some married non-Indians; and in the late colonial era had little claim to hereditary authority.[16]
The Mixtec area, both historically and currently, corresponds roughly to the western half of the state ofOaxaca, with some Mixtec communities extending into the neighboring state ofPuebla to the north-west and also the state ofGuerrero. The Mixtec people and their homelands are often subdivided into three geographic areas: TheMixteca Alta or Highland Mixtec living in the mountains in, around, and to the west of theValley of Oaxaca; theMixteca Baja or Lowland Mixtec living to the north and west of these highlands, and theMixteca de la Costa or Coastal Mixtec living in the southern plains and the coast of the Pacific Ocean. For most of Mixtec history, the Mixteca Alta was the dominant political force, with the capitals of the Mixtec nation located in the central highlands. The valley of Oaxaca itself was often a disputed border region, sometimes dominated by the Mixtec and sometimes by their neighbors to the east, the Zapotec.
An ancientCoixtlahuaca Basin cave site known as theColossal Natural Bridge is an important sacred place for the Mixtec.
Pedernales-Achiutla dynasty
| Ruler | Born | Reign | Consort | Death | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Tlaxiaco dynasty[17] | ||||||
| Lord8 Jaguar Bloody Coyote | 1113 Tlaxiaco | ? | Lady2 VultureJewel Fan two children | ? | King at Tlaxiaco, a partition from Teozacoalco. His children possibly divided the realm. | |
| Lord4 Grass Sun Face | ? Son of Lord8 Jaguar | ? | Lady6 ReedVenus Face one child | ? | Also king atSosola(Acuchi). | |
| Lord1 Movement Fire Serpent with Feathers | ? Son of Lord4 Grass and Lady6 Reed | ? | Lady2 HousePrecious Quexquemitl one child | ? | Possibly survived his son, and was succeeded by his grandson. | |
| Lord7 Serpent Eagle | ? Son of Lord4 House, Prince of Hill of the Mask and Lady3 House | ? | Lady3 JaguarWar Quexquemitl one child Lady4 Serpent one child | ? | Possibly survived his son (given the son's absence of nickname), and was succeeded by his grandson. | |
| Lord7 Rain Ascending Flame | ? Son of Lord7 Serpent and Lady4 Serpent | ?-1338 | Lady4 Monkey of Tilantongo, Precious Fire Serpent no children | 1338 Hill of the Mask | ||
| Hill of the Mask annexed to Teozacoalco | ||||||
| Ruler | Born | Reign | Consort | Death | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Apoala-Jaltepec dynasty | ||||||
| Lord10 Reed Eagle | c.880? Son of Lord2 Grass Death Serpent, prince ofApoala and Lady8 Rabbit Sun Headdress, Queen ofWhirlpool of Blood-Temple of the Spiderweb and Smoke | ? – after 920 | Lady2 Lizard Venus Red and White Band at least one child | after 920 | ||
| Lord3 Rain Ballcourt with Lines | ? Son of Lord10 Reed and Lady2 Lizard | ? | Lady7 Death Rain Flaming Knot no children | ? | ||
| Suchixtlán dynasty | ||||||
| Lady9 Wind Stone Quexquemitl |  | c.1010 Daughter of Lord8 Wind Twenty Eagles, King of Suchixtlán and Lady10 DeerJaguar Quexquemitl | ? – 1090 | 1041 five children | 1090 Jaltepec aged 79-80? | Spouses, ruled jointly.
|
| Lord10 Eagle Stone Jaguar | ? Son of Lord10 Flower, King of Tilantongo and Lady2 Serpent of Suchixtlán | ? | ||||
| Lady6 Monkey War Quexquemitl |  | 1073? Daughter of Lord10 Eagle and Lady9 Wind | 1090 – 1101 | Lord11 Wind, King of Huachino, Bloody Jaguar 1090 two children | 1101 Huachino aged 27-28? | Assassinated with her husband in Huachino during the Tilantongo coup d'état ofLord 8 DeerJaguar Claw. |
| Lord1 Alligator Ballcourt Eagle |  | 1094 Huachino Second son of Lord11 Wind, King of Huachino and Lady6 Monkey | 1101 – after 1122 | Lady6 Wind of Tilantongo, Feather Blood Quetzal 1122 one child Lady6 Flint of Tilantongo, Precious Fire Serpent 1122 no children | after 1122 aged more than 25-26 | Younger son of Lady 6 Monkey, inherited her settlement at Jaltepec and married daughters of her assassin. |
| Lord5 LizardBlood Jewel |  | 1122 or after 1122 Son of Lord1 Alligator and Lady6 Wind of Tilantongo | ? | Lady4 RainHeartcross Lady8 Rabbit (Both women were sisters and from the town ofTemazcal Cave of Atl Tlachinolli) (three known children in total) | ? | |
| Lord1 RainCelestial Eagle | .png) | ? Son of Lord5 Lizard | ? | Lady2 Alligator Smoke Spiderweb four children | ? | |
| Lord5 FlowerCelestial Eagle |  | ? Son of Lord1 Rain and Lady2 Alligator | ? | Lady10 WaterXolotl Red Jewel two children | ? | |
| Lord6 ReedJaguar Sun |  | ? Son of Lord5 Flower and Lady10 Water | ? | Lady5 MovementCopal Ornament two children | ? | |
| Lord13 WindTlachtli War |  | ? Son of Lord6 Reed and5 Movement | ? | Lady12 Rain of Zahuatlán, Butterfly Quetzal Blood four children | ? | |
| Lord9 Lizard Fire Face |  | ? Son of Lord13 Wind and Lady12 Rain of Zahuatlán | ? – after 1381 | Lady12 Deer of Cuauhtinchán,War Quexquemitl three children | after 1381 | In his reign Zaachila attacked Jaltepec, took the eldest sons of Lord 9 Lizard, and executed them. His minor son was the only one that survived. This son, Lord 2 Jaguar, would eventually succeed his father. |
| Lord2 Jaguar |  | Before 1372 Son ofLord 9 Lizard andLady 12 Deer of Cuauhtinchán | after 1381 – ? | Lady1 Serpent of Teozacoalco,Sun Fan 1372[18] one child | ? | |
| Lord5 Water Jaguar of Tlaxiaco |  | ? Son of Lord2 Jaguar and Lady1 Serpent of Teozacoalco | ? – after 1391 | Lady7 Rain of Tlaxiaco, Fan of Tlaxiaco two children | ? | |
| Lord10 Monkey Rain Falling from Heaven |  | 1391[19] Jaltepec Son of Lord5 Water and Lady7 Rain of Tlaxiaco | ? – after 1414 | Lady2 Water of Yanhuitlán, Xolotl-Jewel 1414[20] three children | after 1414 | |
| Lord3 Death Grey Eagle |  | Before 1420 Son of Lord10 Monkey and Lady2 Water of Yanhuitlán | ? – 1444 | Lady3 Serpent Flower Garland 1420 three children | 1444 Jaltepec aged more than 23-24 | |
| Lord1 Monkey Rain Sun |  | 1416 Jaltepec Son of Lord3 Death and Lady3 Serpent | 1444 – 1480 | Lady7 Water of Teozacoalco, Plumed Sun (d.1477) 1447 at least one child Lady10 Movement, Plumed Sun, Queen of Quetzaltepec no children | 1480 Jaltepec aged 63-64 | |
| Lord4 Serpent Bloody Eagle |  | 1451 Jaltepec Son of Lord1 Monkey and Lady7 Water of Teozacoalco | 1480 – 1520 | Lady5 Monkey of Teozacoalco, Seed of the Broken Mountain (1466-1518) two children | 1520 Jaltepec aged 68–69 | |
| Zaachila-Teozacoalco dynasty | ||||||
| Lord13 Grass Fire Serpent | .png) | 1516 Jaltepec Son of Lord4 Deer, King of Teozacoalco and Lady12 Vulture of Jaltepec | 1520 – 1541 | Lady2 Jaguar of Tlaxiaco,Jewel Red Objects Package 1523 five children Lady5 JaguarCocoa Garland | 1541 Jaltepec aged 24-25 | Maternal grandson of his predecessor. |
| Lord10 Grass Jaguar Smoke Tlaltecuhtli |  | 1527 Jaltepec Son of Lord13 Grass and Lady2 Jaguar of Tlaxiaco | 1541 – after 1556 | Lady10 SerpentFlowered Tree Golden Band 1546 unknown children | After 1556 | Last known ruler in the settlement. |
| Ruler | Born | Reign | Consort | Death | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pedernales-Achiutla dynasty | ||||||
| Lord4 Wind Fire Serpent |  | 1092 Huachino Son of Lord11 Wind, King of Huachino and Lady6 Monkey, Queen of Jaltepec | 1115 – 1164 | Lady10 Flower of Tilantongo, Rain Spiderweb 1124 one child Lady5 Lizard of Deep Valley, Zacate-Pulque Vase 1124 or 1125 three children Lady5 Wind of Tilantongo, Jade and Fur Ornament 1125 no children~ | 1164 Pedernales aged 71–72 | First known ruler of the settlement, which seems to have been separated either from Tilantongo or Jaltepec. |
| Lady13 Flower Precious Bird |  | c.1124/25 Daughter of Lord4 Wind and Lady10 Flower of Tilantongo | 1164 – ? | Lord4 Alligator of Tilantongo, Sacred Serpent c.1138 ten children | ? | |
| Lord7 Eagle Flames |  | 1138 Pedernales First son of Lord4 Alligator of Tilantongo and Lady13 Flower | ? | Lady3 Serpent of Achiutla, Sacred Jewel no children | ? | Left no children and was succeeded by his brother. |
| Lord4 Jaguar War Jaguar |  | 1144 Pedernales Second son of LordLord 4 Alligator of Tilantongo and Lady13 Flower | ? | Lady8 Jaguar of Achiutla, Serpent Jewel at least one child | ? | |
| Lord1 Eagle Rain |  | c.1160 Son of Lord4 Water, prince of Pedernales and Lady 1 Grass of Achiutla | ? – after 1171 | Unmarried | After 1171 | Nephew of his predecessors. |
| Lord7 Reed Pheasant |  | ? Son of Lord13 Serpent, Prince of Pedernales and Lady11 Deer, Princess of Pedernales | ? | ? | ? | Cousin of his predecessor. |
| Pedernales annexed to Teozacoalco | ||||||
Teozacoalco dynasty
| Ruler | Born | Reign | Consort | Death | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Suchixtlán dynasty | ||||||
| Lord8 Wind Stone Eagle/ Twenty Eagles |  | ? Son or descendant ofLord 3 Rain, King of Jaltepec | ? – 1027 | Lady10 Deer Jaguar Quexquemitl 1009 Lady 10 Grass 1010 Lady 10 Eagle 1011 seven children in total | 1027 Suchixtlán orJaltepec | |
| Hiatus with no known rulers | ||||||
| Lord12 Movement Jaguar that Burns the Mexicans | ? | ? | Lady1 JaguarDivine Fan at least one child | ? | ||
| Lord13 Eagle Bloody Jaguar | ? Son of Lord12 Movement and Lady1 Jaguar | ? | Lady12 Flower, Queen of Tilantongo four children | ? | ||
| Zaachila-Teozacoalco dynasty | ||||||
| Lady2 Flower Rising Jewel |  | ? Daughter of Lord13 Eagle and Lady12 Flower of Tilantongo | ? – 1461 | c.1450? two children | ? | Spouses and explicitly co-rulers in Suchixtlán (according to Codex Muro). Lord 6 Death possibly also inherited his kingdom at San Pedro Cántaros. |
| Lord6 DeathSun Rain | ? Son of Lord10 Alligator, king of Cántaros and Lady7 Vulture (of Tilantongo?) | 1461 | ||||
| Lady11 Monkey Jade Spiderweb | _and_Lady_11_Monkey_(from_Suchixtl%25C3%25A1n)_rulers_of_Suchixtl%25C3%25A1n.png) | ? Son of Lord6 Death and Lady2 Flower | ? | three children | ? | Probably ruled jointly, as despite she inherited the kingdom, her husband is said to have also ruled there. |
| Lord4 Death War Venus | ? Son of Lord6 Deer, king of Tilantongo and Lady13 Wind of Jaltepec | ? | ? | |||
| Lord8 Monkey | _and_Lord_8_Monkey_king_of_Suchixtl%25C3%25A1n.png) | ? Son of Lord4 Death and Lady11 Monkey | ? | Lady4 Water of Tilantongo, Butterfly with Red Spots no children | ? | |
| Hiatus with no known rulers | ||||||
| Lord8 MovementJaguar Tlaloc Wall | ? | ? | Lady8 Flint of Jaltepec, Venus Legs Bent Strip (born 1528) c.1530/40? no children | ? | Last known ruler of the town. | |
| Ruler | Born | Reign | Consort | Death | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2nd Tilantongo dynasty | ||||||
| Lord4 Dog Coyote Hunter |  | 1110 Teozacoalco Son ofLord 8 Deer and Lady 13 Serpent of Huachino | 1115 – after 1132 | Lady4 DeathJewel (born 1115) 1125 two children | after 1132 | |
| Lord13 Dog Venus Eagle |  | 1132 Teozacoalco Son of Lord4 Dog and Lady4 Death | after 1132 – after 1149 | Lady8 VultureStone Quechquemitl Lady4 RabbitFeathers on the Sand two children in total | after 1149 | |
| Lord7 Water Red Eagle |  | 1149 Teozacoalco Son of Lord13 Dog | ? | Lady11 WaterPrecious Serpent two children | ? | |
| Lord13 Eagle Sacred Rain |  | Son of Lord7 Water and Lady11 Water | ? – after 1189 | Lady13 DeathJade Quechquemitl two children Lady10 DeerJaguar Quechquemitl three children Lady8 ReedPrecious Girl one child Lady of the Staff of Respect no children Lady11 MovementJewel with Quetzal Feathers two children Lady9 Monkey one child | after 1189 | |
| Lord8 Rabbit Fire of Tlaxiaco |  | 1189 Teozacoalco Son of Lord13 Eagle and Lady8 Reed | ? | Lady6 Grass of Tilantongo, Transparent Butterfly five children | ? | |
| Lord12 House Fire Serpent Flying in the Sky |  | ? Son of Lord8 Rabbit and Lady6 Grass of Tilantongo | ? | five children | ? | Sibling-spouses, ruled jointly.
|
| Lady11 Alligator Quetzal Jewel |  | ? Daughter of Lord8 Rabbit and Lady6 Grass of Tilantongo | ? | |||
| Lord9 Movement Precious Water |  | ? Son of Lord12 House and Lady11 Alligator | ? – 1321[17] | no children | 1321 Teozacoalco | Sibling-spouses, ruled jointly. Left no children. |
| Lady2 Jaguar Jade Spiderweb | ? Daughter of Lord12 House and Lady11 Alligator | |||||
| Zaachila-Teozacoalco dynasty | ||||||
| Lord2 Dog Rope and Knives |  | ? Son ofLord 5 Flower, King of Zaachila andLady 4 Rabbit of Teozacoalco | 1321[17] – after 1323 | Lady6 Reed of Tilantongo, Plumed Serpent three children | ? | |
| Lord9 House Mexican Jaguar |  | 1323 Teozacoalco Son of Lord2 Dog and Lady6 Reed of Tilantongo | ? – after 1372 | Lady3 RabbitDivine Flame, Queen of Tilantongo (born 1345) 1353 no children | after 1372 | Also, by marriage, king of Tilantongo. |
| Lord2 Water Fire Serpent |  | 1357 Teozacoalco Son of Lord9 House and Lady3 Rabbit of Tlaxiaco | after 1372 – after 1402 | Lady2 Vulture of Teita, Flower Jewel one child Lady3 Alligator of Zaachila, Jade Fan six children Lady12 Flint of Teita one child Lady4 Reed Twenty Jaguars no children | after 1402 aged more than 44-45 | After his death his inheritance is divided: His eldest daughter received Tilantongo; his first son got Teozacoalco, and his second son eventually inherited his mother's realm of Zaachila. |
| Lord5 Rain Water Falling from the Sky |  | 1402? Son of LordLord 2 Water andLady 3 Alligator of Zaachila | ? – after 1416 | Lady 5 Flower of Tlaxiaco, Quetzal Sun 1416 four children | after 1416 | His children inherited their mother's realm. Teozacoalco reunited with Tilantongo. |
| Lord6 Deer Sacred Rain |  | 1393 Son of Lord13 Eagle, King of Suchixtlán and Lady12 Flower, Queen of Tilantongo | after 1416 – ? | Lady13 Wind of Jaltepec, Seed of the Broken Mountain two children | after 1416 aged more than 22-23 | Nephew of the predecessor. |
| Lord4 Flower Pheasant |  | 1409 Teozacoalco Son of Lord6 Deer and Lady13 Wind of Jaltepec | ? – after 1438 | Lady 7 Vulture of Etlatongo, Quetzal Fan seven children | after 1438 aged more than 28-29 | Probably during his reign, the capital of the dual kingdom of Teozacoalco-Tilantongo may have returned to Tilantongo, but this isn't certain. |
| Lord10 Rain Sun Rain |  | 1438 Teozacoalco Son of Lord4 Flower and Lady7 Vulture of Etlatongo | ? – after 1476 | Lady5 Wind of Suchixtlán, Cocoa Flower four children | after 1476 aged more than 37-38 | |
| Lord4 Deer Eagle of Tlaxiaco |  | 1476 Teozacoalco Son ofLord 10 Rain and Lady5 Wind of Suchixtlán | ? – 1521 | Lady11 Serpent Lady12 Vulture of Jaltepec, Sun Fan (born 1484) one child in total | 1521 Teozacoalco aged 44–45 | His kingdom fell to the Spanish, and may have died during the invasion. Probably because of this same invasion, the kingdom lost its status: his son may have succeeded only in the maternal kingdom of Jaltepec. |
| Teozacoalco occupied by the Spanish | ||||||
| Ruler | Born | Reign | Consort | Death | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st Tilantongo dynasty | ||||||
| Lord10 House Jaguar | _1st_monarchs_of_Tilantongo.png) | ? | ? | Lady1 GrassPuma one child | ? | First known ruler of the settlement. |
| Lord3 Eagle Eagle of the Serpent Place |  | ? Son of Lord10 House and Lady1 Grass | ? – after 942 | Lady4 RabbitQuexquemitl of Mitlatongo two children | after 942 | |
| Lord9 Wind Stone Skull |  | 942 Tilantongo Son of LordLord 3 Eagle andLady 4 Rabbit of Mitlatongo | ? – 1020 | Lady5 Reed of Monte Albán, Rain Hill c.990 three children | 1020 aged 77-78 |
|
| Lord10 Flower Burnt-Eyed Jaguar |  | 992 Tilantongo Son of Lord9 Wind and Lady5 Reed of Monte Albán | 1020 – 1043 | Lady2 Serpent of Suchixtlán, Plumed Serpent (born 1005) 1013 six children | 1043 aged 50-51 | Many of his relatives are known to have sit exclusively in some thrones:
|
| Lord12 Lizard Arrow Feet |  | c.1013 Son of Lord10 Flower and Lady2 Serpent of Suchixtlán | 1043 – c.1080? | Lady4 Flint of Topiltepec, Face Quetzal Feathers Lady4 Alligator of Topiltepec, Jewel Face four children in total | c.1080? Tilantongo aged around 66-67 | Married his nieces, daughters of his sister. |
| Lord5 Movement Smoked Sky | _of_Tilantongo.png) | ? Son of Lord12 Lizard | 1080 – ? | Lady4 Death of Jaltepec, Jewel of the People no children Lady 2 Grass 1073 one child | ? | The succession of the son and grandson of Lord 12 Lizard is debated, as Lord 12 Lizard is the last of his dynasty explicitly depicted as king of Tilantongo before Lord 8 Deer's conquest (1097). Even his grandson, who died young in a mysterious suicide ritual, is sometimes called by experts as an heir, instead of an official ruler. There isn't also any indication of the time of death of Lord 12 Lizard, which confuses matters. Whatis known is that, as Lady 2 Grass (Lord 2 Rain's mother) came fromVisible Stones (a place under domination of Suchixtlán), Suchixtlán became influent in Tilantongo during this period of uncertainty. It's also possible that Lord 12 Lizard's sister,Lady 4 RabbitPrecious Quetzal, was his next heiress, as, before usurping the throne, Lord 8 Deer had bowed to her and her husband in their town atSosola(Acuchi). |
| Lord2 Rain Twenty Jaguars | _of_Tilantongo.png) | 1075 Tilantongo Son of Lord5 Movement and Lady 2 Grass | ? – 18 June 1097 | Unmarried | 18 June 1097 Tilantongo aged 21–22 | |
| 2nd Tilantongo dynasty | ||||||
| Lord8 Deer Jaguar Claw |  | 1063 Tilantongo Son of Lord5 AlligatorSun Rain, Priest and Lady11 WaterJewel Bird | 18 June 1097 – 10 November 1115 | Lady13 Serpent of Huachino, Flowered Serpent 1103 five children Lady6 Eagle of Chalcatongo, Jaguar Spiderweb 1105 one child Lady10 Vulture Shining Quexquemitl 1105 two children Lady11 Serpent of Totomihuacan, Jaguar Flower Turquoise Teeth 1105 two children LadyLady 6 Wind of Cuyotepeji, Great Feathers of Noble Blood no children | 10 November 1115 Tilantongo aged 51–52 | Usurper and founder of a new royal line at Tilantongo. After his death the influence in Mixtec realms passed to Pedernales, but the succession continued in Tilantongo. Lord 8 Deer was related to other settlements:
|
| Regency of Lady6 EagleJaguar Spiderweb of Chalcatongo during Lord 6 House's minority | ||||||
| Lord6 House Jaguar Falling from Heaven |  | 1109 Tilantongo Son of Lord8 Deer and Lady6 Eagle of Chacaltongo | 10 November 1115 – ? | Lady9 MovementHeart of Juquila one child | ? | |
| Lord5 Water Stone Jaguar Heaven |  | ? Son of Lord6 House and LadyLady 9 Movement of Juquila | ? | Lady10 Reed of Tilantongo, Quetzal Jewel eight children | ? | Married his cousin, daughter of his father's half-brother. |
| Lord8 Reed Pheasant |  | ? Son of Lord5 Water and Lady10 Reed of Tilantongo | ? | two children | ? | Sibling-spouses, ruled jointly. |
| Lady5 Rabbit Jewel |  | ? Daughter of Lord5 Water and Lady10 Reed of Tilantongo | ? | |||
| Lord2 Movement Serpent with Markings |  | ? Son of Lord8 Reed and Lady5 Rabbit | ?-1206 | Lady4 Eagle of Teita, Blood Quechquemitl Lady12 Flint of Mountain of Flowers, Hummingbird Jewel Lady10 Eagle of Mountain of Flowers, Serpent Spiderweb three children in total | 1206 Tilantongo | Apparently survived his own sons and heirs,Lord 8 GrassCoyote Sacrificer andLord 1 LizardBloody Jaguar, and was succeeded by his grandchildren. |
| Lord12 Reed Coyote Sun |  | ? Son of Lord1 Lizard, Prince of Tilantongo and Lady6 Reed of Sunken Disk Plain | 1206-? | before or c.1206 three children | ? | Sibling-spouses, ruled jointly. |
| Lady3 Jaguar Precious Butterfly Sun |  | ? Daughter of Lord1 Lizard, Prince of Tilantongo and Lady6 Reed of Sunken Disk Plain | ? | |||
| Lord5 Rain Sun Movement |  | ? Son of Lord12 Reed and Lady3 Jaguar | ? | Lady13 Lizard of Puma, Truly Precious Butterfly one child | ? | Lord 5 Rain was related to other settlements' rulers:
|
| Lord13 Wind Fire Serpent |  | ? Son of Lord5 Rain and Lady13 Lizard of Puma | ? – after 1277 | Lady1 Water of Teozacoalco, Venus Quechquemitl 1277 one child | after 1277 | |
| Lord9 Serpent Jaguar War Illuminator |  | ? Son of Lord13 Wind and Lady1 Water of Teozacoalco | ? | Lady 8 Flint of Yucuita Lady 7 Flower of Yucuita four children in total | ? | |
| Lord4 Water Bloody Eagle |  | ? Son of Lord9 Serpent | ? – 1341 | LadyLady 6 Water Quetzal Jewel of Flower War no children | 1341 Tilantongo | Left no children, and his dynasty came to an end. He was succeeded by his widow. |
| Zaachila-Teozacoalco dynasty | ||||||
| Lady6 Water Quetzal Jewel of Flower War |  | ? Daughter of Lord2 Dog, King of Teozacoalco and Lady6 Reed of Tilantongo | 1341 – after 1345 | Lord 4 Water Bloody Eagle no children PrinceLord 4 Death of Tlaxiaco, War Venus 1343 four children | after 1345 | Widow and niece of the previous. As the eldest child of the only sister of Lord 4 Water that had children, she became the inheritor of his uncle-husband's kingdom. She inherited it not as widow of her husband, but as a rightful heir of her uncle. |
| Lady3 Rabbit Divine Flame | | 1345 Tilantongo Daughter of LordLord 4 Death, Prince of Tlaxiaco and Lady6 Water | after 1345-after 1372 | 1353 six children | after 1372 | Like her mother, she married her own uncle (her mother's brother), keeping the kingdom in the family, and made possible the reunion of Tilantongo and Teozacoalco. |
| Lord9 House Mexican Jaguar | 1323 Teozacoalco Son of Lord2 Dog, King of Teozacoalco and Lady6 Reed of Tilantongo | |||||
| Lord2 Water Fire Serpent | | 1357 Teozacoalco Son of Lord9 House and Lady3 Rabbit of Tlaxiaco | after 1372 – after 1402 | Lady2 Vulture of Teita, Flower Jewel one child Lady3 Alligator of Zaachila, Jade Fan six children Lady12 Flint of Teita one child Lady4 Reed Twenty Jaguars no children | after 1402 aged more than 44-45 | After his death his inheritance is divided: His eldest daughter received Tilantongo; his first son got Teozacoalco, and his second son eventually inherited his mother's realm of Zaachila. |
| Lady12 Flower Broken Mountain Butterfly |  | ? Daughter of Lord2 Water and2 Vulture of Teita | after 1402 – ? | LordLord 12 Eagle, King of Suchixtlán, Bloody Jaguar no children | ? | First separate ruler of Tilantongo since 1341. At her death, her children inherited Tilantongo. |
| Lord6 Deer Sacred Rain | | 1393 Son of Lord13 Eagle, King of Suchixtlán and Lady12 Flower, Queen of Tilantongo | after 1416? | Lady13 Wind of Jaltepec, Seed of the Broken Mountain two children | after 1416 aged more than 22-23 | Nephew of the predecessor. |
| Lord4 Flower Pheasant | | 1409 Teozacoalco Son of Lord6 Deer and Lady13 Wind of Jaltepec | ? – after 1438 | Lady 7 Vulture of Etlatongo, Quetzal Fan seven children | after 1438 aged more than 28-29 | Probably during his reign, the capital of the dual kingdom of Teozacoalco-Tilantongo may have returned to Tilantongo, but this isn't certain. |
| Lord10 Rain Sun Rain | | 1438 Teozacoalco Son of Lord4 Flower and Lady7 Vulture of Etlatongo | ? – after 1476 | Lady5 Wind of Suchixtlán, Cocoa Flower four children | after 1476 aged more than 37-38 | |
| Lord4 Deer Eagle of Tlaxiaco | | 1476 Teozacoalco Son ofLord 10 Rain and Lady5 Wind of Suchixtlán | ? – 1521 | Lady11 Serpent Lady12 Vulture of Jaltepec, Sun Fan (born 1484) one child in total | 1521 Teozacoalco aged 44–45 | His kingdom fell to the Spanish, and may have died during the invasion. Probably because of this same invasion, the kingdom lost its status: his son may have succeeded only in the maternal kingdom of Jaltepec. |
| Tilantongo occupied by the Spanish | ||||||
TheMixtecan languages (in their many variants) were estimated to be spoken by about 300,000 people at the end of the 20th century, although the majority of Mixtec speakers also had at least a working knowledge of the Spanish language. Some Mixtecan languages are called by names other than Mixtec, particularlyCuicatec (Cuicateco), andTriqui (or Trique).
The Mixtec are well known in the anthropological world for their Codices or phonetic pictures[clarification needed] in which they wrote their history and genealogies in deerskin in the "fold-book" form. The best-known story of the Mixtec Codices is that of LordEight Deer, named after the day in which he was born, whose personal name isJaguar Claw, and whose epic history is related in several codices, including theCodex Bodley andCodex Zouche-Nuttall. He successfully conquered and united most of the Mixteca region.
They were also known for their exceptional mastery of jewelry and mosaic, among which gold and turquoise figure prominently. Products by Mixtec goldsmiths formed an important part of the tribute the Mixtecs paid to the Aztecs during parts of their history.[21][unreliable source?] Turquoise mosaic masks also played an important role in both political and religious functions.[22] These masks were used as gifts to form political alliances, in ceremonies during which the wearer of the mask impersonated a god, and were fixed to funerary bundles that were seen as oracles.[23]
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Media related toMixtec at Wikimedia Commons
| More than 100,000 people | ||
|---|---|---|
| 20,000 – 100,000 people | ||
| 1,000 – 20,000 people | ||
| Less than 1,000 people | ||
