Trans men have agender identity that does not align with their femalesex assignment at birth, whileintersex men may have sex characteristics that do not fit typical notions of male biology.
The English term "man" is derived from theProto-Indo-European root*man- (seeSanskrit/Avestanmanu-,Slavicmǫž "man, male").[4] More directly, the word derives fromOld Englishmann. The Old English form primarily meant "person" or "human being" and referred to men, women, and children alike. The Old English word for "man" as distinct from "wif"/"woman" or "child" waswer.Mann only came to mean "man" in Middle English, replacingwer, which survives today only in the compounds "werewolf" (from Old Englishwerwulf, literally "man-wolf"), and "wergild", literally "man-payment".[5][6][7]
In humans, sperm cells carry either anX or aY sex chromosome. If a sperm cell carrying aY chromosome fertilizes the femaleovum, the offspring will have a male karyotype (XY). TheSRY gene is typically found on the Y chromosome and causes the development of the testes, which in turn govern other aspects ofmale sex differentiation. Sex differentiation in males proceeds in a testes-dependent way while female differentiation is not gonad dependent.[8]
Primary sex characteristics (or sex organs) are characteristics that are present at birth and are integral to the reproductive process. For men, primary sex characteristics include thepenis andtesticles.
Adult humans exhibitsexual dimorphism in many other characteristics, many of which have no direct link to reproductive ability. Humans are sexually dimorphic in body size, body structure, and body composition. Men tend to be taller and heavier than women, and adjusted for height, men tend to have greater lean and bone mass than women, and lower fat mass.[9]
Photograph of an adult male human (right), with an adult female for comparison. Thepubic hair of both models is removed.
Secondary sex characteristics are features that appear duringpuberty inhumans.[10][11] Such features are especially evident in thesexually dimorphicphenotypic traits that distinguish between the sexes, but—unlike the primary sex characteristics—are not directly part of thereproductive system.[12][13][14] Secondary sexual characteristics that are specific to men include:
A voice that is significantly deeper than the voice of a child or a woman.[13]
Men weigh more than women.[16] On average, men are taller than women by about 10%.[16] On average, men have a larger waist in comparison to their hips (seewaist–hip ratio) than women. In women, the index and ring fingers tend to be either more similar in size or their index finger is slightly longer than their ring finger, whereas men's ring finger tends to be longer.[17]
The external male genitalia consist of thepenis, an organ that expelssemen, and thescrotum, a pouch of skin housing the testicles.[18]
The male reproductive system's function is to producesemen, which carriessperm and thusgenetic information that can unite with anegg within a woman. Since sperm that enters a woman'suterus and thenfallopian tubes goes on tofertilize an egg which develops into afetus or child, the male reproductive system plays no necessary role during thegestation. The study of male reproduction and associated organs is calledandrology.[19]
While a majority of the global health gender disparities is weighted against women, there are situations in which men tend to fare poorer. One such instance isarmed conflicts, where men are often the immediate victims. A study of conflicts in 13 countries from 1955 to 2002 found that 81% of all violentwar deaths were male.[21] Apart from armed conflicts, areas with high incidence of violence, such as regions controlled bydrug cartels, also see men experiencing higher mortality rates.[22] This stems from social beliefs that associate ideals ofmasculinity with aggressive, confrontational behavior.[23] Lastly, sudden and drastic changes in economic environments and the loss ofsocial safety nets, in particular social subsidies and food stamps, have also been linked to higher levels ofalcohol consumption andpsychological stress among men, leading to a spike in male mortality rates. This is because such situations often makes it harder for men to provide for their family, a task that has been long regarded as the "essence of masculinity."[24] A retrospective analyses of people infected with the common cold found that doctors underrate the symptoms of men, and are more willing to attribute symptoms and illness to women than men.[25] Women live longer than men in all countries, and across all age groups, for which reliable records exist.[26] In the United States, men are less healthy than women across all social classes. Non-white men are especially unhealthy. Men are over-represented in dangerous occupations and represent a majority of on the job deaths. Further, medical doctors provide men with less service, less advice, and spend less time with men than they do with women per medical encounter.[27]
Most men arecisgender, and theirgender identity aligns with theirmale sex assignment at birth.Trans men have a male gender identity that does not align with theirfemale sex assignment at birth, and may undergo masculinizinghormone replacement therapy and/orsex reassignment surgery.[32]Intersex men may have sex characteristics that do not fit typical notions of male biology.[33] A 2016 systemic review estimated that 0.256% of people self-identify as female-to-male transgender.[34] A 2017 survey of 80,929 Minnesota students found that roughly twice as many female-assigned adolescents self-identified as transgender, compared to adolescents with a male sex assignment.[35]
Masculinity (also sometimes calledmanhood ormanliness) is the set of personality traits and attributes associated with boys and men. Although masculinity issocially constructed,[36] some research indicates that some behaviors considered masculine are biologically influenced.[37] To what extent masculinity is biologically or socially influenced is subject to debate.[37] It isdistinct from the definition of thebiological male sex, as both males and females can exhibit masculine traits.[38] Men generally facesocial stigma for embodyingfeminine traits, more so than women do for embodying masculine traits.[39] This can also manifest ashomophobia.[40]
Standards of manliness or masculinity vary across different cultures and historical periods.[41] While the outward signs of masculinity look different in different cultures, there are some common aspects to its definition across cultures. In all cultures in the past, and still among traditional and non-Western cultures, getting married is the most common and definitive distinction between boyhood and manhood.[42] In the late 20th century, some qualities traditionally associated with marriage (such as the "triple Ps" ofprotecting, providing, andprocreating) were still considered signs of having achieved manhood.[42][43]
Relationships
Two men playing a board game
Platonic relationships are not significantly different between men and women, though some differences do exist. Friendships involving men tend to be based more on shared activities than self-disclosure and personal connection. Perceptions of friendship involving men varies among cultures and time periods.[44] In heterosexual romantic relationships, men are typically expected to take a proactive role, initiate the relationship, plan dates, and propose marriage.[45]
Status
Anthropology has shown that masculinity itself hassocial status, just like wealth,race and social class. InWestern culture, for example, greater masculinity usually brings greater social status.[46] Many English words such asvirtue andvirile (from theIndo-European rootvir meaningman) reflect this.[47][48] In most cultures,male privilege allows men more rights and privileges than women. In societies where men are not given special legal privileges, they typically hold more positions of power, and men are seen as being taken more seriously in society.[46] This is associated with a "gender-role strain" in which men face increased societal pressure to conform to gender roles.[49]
History
The earliest known recorded name of a man in writing is potentiallyKushim, who would have lived sometime between 3400 and 3000 BC in theSumerian city ofUruk; though his name may have been a title rather than his actual name.[50] The earliest confirmed names are that of Gal-Sal and his two slaves named En-pap X and Sukkalgir, fromc. 3100 BC.[51]
Men may have children, whether biological oradopted; such men are called fathers. The role of men in the family has shifted considerably in the 20th and 21st centuries, taking on a more active role in raising children in most societies.[52][53][54][55] Men would traditionally marry a woman when raising children, but in modern times many countries now allow forsame-sex marriage, and for those couples to raise children either via adoption orsurrogacy. Men may besingle parents, and are increasingly so in modern times, though women are three times more likely to be single parents than men.[56] Inpaternal societies, men have typically have been regarded as the "head of household" and held additional social privileges.[57]
Men have traditionally held jobs that were not available to women. Such jobs tended to be either more strenuous, more prestigious, or more dangerous. Modern men increasingly take untraditional career paths, such as staying home and raising children while their partner works.[58] Modern men tend to work longer than women, which impacts their ability to spend time with their families.[59] Even in modern times, some jobs remain available only to men, such as military service.[60]Conscription is overwhelmingly discriminatory, currently only ten countries include women in their conscription programs.[61][62] Men continue to hold more dangerous jobs than women, even in developed countries. In the United States in 2020, ten times as many men died on the job as women, and a man was ten times more likely to die on the job than a woman.[63]
Entertainment and media
Media portrayals of men often replicate traditional understanding of masculinity. Men are portrayed more frequently in television than women and most commonly appear as leads in action and drama programming. Men are typically more active in television programming than women and typically hold more power and status. Due to their prominence, men are more likely to be both the objects and instigators of humorous or disparaging content. Fathers are often portrayed in television as either idealized and caring or clumsy and inept. In advertising, men are disproportionately featured in advertisements for alcohol, vehicles, and business products.[64]
Clothing
A man wearing abusiness suit stands next to a display of men'sblue jeans at a clothing factory.
Men's clothing typically encompasses a range of garments designed for various occasions, seasons, and styles. Fundamental items of a man's wardrobe include shirts, trousers, suits, and jackets, which are designed to provide both comfort and style while prioritizing functionality. Men's fashion also encompasses more casual garments such ast-shirts,sweatshirts,jeans,shorts, andswimwear, which are typically intended for informal settings. Cultural and regional traditions often influence men's fashion, resulting in diverse styles and garments that reflect the unique characteristics of different parts of the world.[65]
Men traditionally received more education than women as a result ofsingle-sex education. Universal education, meaning state-provided primary and secondary education independent of gender, is not yet a global norm, even if it is assumed in most developed countries.[66][67] In the 21st century, the balance has shifted in many developed nations, and men now lag behind women in education.[68]
Men are more likely than women to be faculty at universities.[69]
In 2020, 90% of the world's men wereliterate, compared to 87% of women. But sub-Saharan Africa, and southwest Asia lagged behind the rest of the world; only 72% of men in sub-Saharan Africa were literate.[70]
TheMars symbol (♂) is a common symbol that represents the male sex.[87] The symbol is identical to the planetary symbol ofMars.[88] It was first used to denote sex byCarl Linnaeus in 1751.[89] The symbol is sometimes seen as a stylized representation of the shield and spear of theRoman godMars. According to Stearn, however, this derivation is "fanciful" and all the historical evidence favours "the conclusion of the French classical scholarClaude de Saumaise" that it is derived fromθρ, the contraction of a Greekepithet for Mars,θοῦρος (Thouros).[90]
^Rey, Rodolfo; Josso, Nathalie; Racine, Chrystèle (2000)."Sexual Differentiation".Endotext. MDText.com, Inc.PMID25905232.Archived from the original on 8 August 2022. Retrieved6 December 2021.Irrespective of their chromosomal constitution, when the gonadal primordia differentiate into testes, all internal and external genitalia develop following the male pathway. When no testes are present, the genitalia develop along the female pathway. The existence of ovaries has no effect on fetal differentiation of the genitalia. The paramount importance of testicular differentiation for fetal sex development has prompted the use of the expression "sex determination" to refer to the differentiation of the bipotential or primitive gonads into testes.
^Kevin L. Nadal,The Sage Encyclopedia of Psychology and Gender (2017,ISBN978-1-4833-8427-6), p. 401: "Most cultures currently construct their societies based on the understanding of gender binary—the two gender categorizations (male and female). Such societies divide their population based on biological sex assigned to individuals at birth to begin the process of gender socialization."
Halberstam, Judith (2004)."'Female masculinity'". In Kimmel, Michael S.; Aronson, Amy (eds.).Men and Masculinities: A Social, Cultural, and Historical Encyclopedia, Volume 1. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. pp. 294–295.ISBN978-1-57607-774-0.Archived from the original on 19 January 2023. Retrieved25 December 2019.
^Livingston, Gretchen; Parker, Kim (19 June 2019)."8 facts about American dads".Pew Research Center.Archived from the original on 10 March 2023. Retrieved2 February 2022.
^Fejes, Fred J. (1992). "Considering Men and the Media". In Craig, Steve (ed.).Masculinity as Fact: A Review of Empirical Mass Communication Research on Masculinity. SAGE Publications. pp. 9–22.ISBN978-0-8039-4163-2.
^Brainard, Susanne G.; Carlin, Linda (2001).A six-year Longitudinal Study of Undergraduate Women in Engineering and Science:The Gender and Science Reader. New York: Routledge. pp. 24–37.
^Ouellette, Marc (2007)."Misandry". InFlood, Michael; et al. (eds.).International Encyclopedia of Men and Masculinities. Abingdon; New York: Routledge. pp. 442–443.ISBN978-0-415-33343-6.
^Gilmore, David D. (2010).Misogyny: The Male Malady. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 12–13.ISBN978-0-8122-0032-4.
^Briere, John; Elliott, Diana M. (2003). "Prevalence and psychological sequelae of self-reported childhood physical and sexual abuse in a general population sample of men and women".Child Abuse & Neglect.27 (10):1205–1222.doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2003.09.008.PMID14602100.
^Dube, S.; Anda, R.; Whitfield, C.; Brown, D.; Felitti, V.; Dong, M.; Giles, W. (2005). "Long-term consequences of childhood sexual abuse by gender of victim".American Journal of Preventive Medicine.28 (5):430–438.doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2005.01.015.PMID15894146.
^Holmes, W. C.; Slap, G. B. (1998). "Sexual abuse of boys: Definition, prevalence, correlates, sequelae, and management".Journal of the American Medical Association.280 (21):1855–1862.doi:10.1001/jama.280.21.1855.PMID9846781.
^Lisak, David; Hopper, Jim; Song, Pat (1996). "Factors in the cycle of violence: Gender rigidity and emotional constriction".Journal of Traumatic Stress.9 (4):721–743.doi:10.1002/jts.2490090405.PMID8902743.
^Finkelhor, David; Hotaling, Gerald; Lewis, I.A; Smith, Christine (1990). "Sexual abuse in a national survey of adult men and women: Prevalence, characteristics, and risk factors".Child Abuse & Neglect.14 (1):19–28.doi:10.1016/0145-2134(90)90077-7.PMID2310970.
^"Solar System Symbols".NASA Solar System Exploration.Archived from the original on 20 December 2021. Retrieved18 August 2021.
^Stearn, William T. (May 1962)."The Origin of the Male and Female Symbols of Biology"(PDF).Taxon.11 (4):109–113.doi:10.2307/1217734.ISSN0040-0262.JSTOR1217734.Archived(PDF) from the original on 27 May 2023. Retrieved16 August 2022.Their first biological use is in the Linnaean dissertationPlantae hybridae xxx sistit J. J. Haartman (1751) where in discussing hybrid plants Linnaeus denoted the supposed female parent species by the sign ♀, the male parent by the sign ♂, the hybrid by ☿: 'matrem signo ♀, patrem ♂ & plantam hybridam ☿ designavero'. In subsequent publications he retained the signs ♀ and ♂ for male and female individuals but discarded ☿ for hybrids.
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