A 13th–14th-centuryscroll of the Book of Esther fromFez, Morocco, held at theMusée du Quai Branly inParis. Traditionally, a scroll ofEsther is given only one roller, fixed to its lefthand side, rather than the two used for aTorah scroll.[1]
TheBook of Esther (Hebrew:מְגִלַּת אֶסְתֵּר,romanized: Megillat Ester;Greek:Ἐσθήρ;Latin:Liber Esther), also known inHebrew as "the Scroll" ("theMegillah"), is a book in the third section (Ketuvim,כְּתוּבִים "Writings") of theHebrew Bible. It is one of theFive Scrolls (Megillot) in the Hebrew Bible and later became part of the ChristianOld Testament. The book relates the story of aJewish woman inPersia, born as Hadassah but known asEsther, who becomes queen of Persia and thwarts agenocide of her people.
The story takes place during the reign of KingAhasuerus in theFirst Persian Empire. QueenVashti, the wife of King Ahasuerus, is banished from the court for disobeying the king's orders. A beauty pageant is held to find a new queen, and Esther, a young Jewish woman living in Persia, is chosen as the new queen. Esther's cousinMordecai, who is a Jewish leader, discovers a plot to kill all of the Jews in the empire byHaman, one of the king's advisors. Mordecai urges Esther to use her position as queen to intervene and save their people. Esther reveals her Jewish identity to the king and begs for mercy for her people. She exposes Haman's plot and convinces the king to spare the Jews. TheJewish festival ofPurim is established to celebrate the victory of the Jews of the First Persian Empire over their enemies, and Esther becomes a heroine of the Jewish people.
The books of Esther andSong of Songs are the only books in the Hebrew Bible that do not mentionGod explicitly.[2] Traditional Judaism views the absence of God's overt intervention in the story as an example of how God can work through seemingly coincidental events and the actions of individuals.[citation needed]
The book is at the center of the Jewish festival of Purim and is read aloud twice from ahandwritten scroll, usually in asynagogue, during the holiday: once in the evening and again the following morning. The distribution of charity to those in need and theexchange of gifts of foods are also practices observed on the holiday that are mandated in the book. According tobiblical scholars, the narrative of Esther was written to provide anetiology for Purim’s origin.[3]
The biblical Book of Esther is set in the Persiancapital ofSusa (Shushan) in the third year of the reign of thePersian kingAhasuerus. The nameAhasuerus is equivalent toXerxes[4] (both deriving from thePersianKhshayārsha),[5] and Ahasuerus is usually identified in modern sources asXerxes I,[6][7] who ruled between 486 and 465 BCE,[4] as it is to this monarch that the events described in Esther are thought to fit the most closely.[5][8]
Assuming that Ahasuerus is indeed Xerxes I, the events described in Esther began around the years 483–482 BCE, and concluded in March 473 BCE.
On his accession, however, Artaxerxes II lost Egypt to pharaohAmyrtaeus, after which it was no longer part of the Persian empire. In hisHistoria ScholasticaPetrus Comestor identified Ahasuerus (Esther 1:1) asArtaxerxes III (358–338 BCE) who reconquered Egypt.[10]
The Book of Esther consists of an introduction (orexposition) in chapters 1 and 2; the main action (complication and resolution) in chapters 3 to 9:19; and a conclusion in 9:20–10:3.[11]
The introduction of Book of Esther, hand written, part of Cairo Gniza, digital collections of Younes & Soraya Nazarian Library, University of Haifa
The plot is structured around banquets (Hebrew:מִשְׁתֶּה,romanized: mišˈte, pluralמִשְׁתָּאוֹתmištāˈoṯ orמִשְׁתִּיםmišˈtim), a word that occurs twenty times in Esther and only 24 times in the rest of the Hebrew bible. This is appropriate given that Esther describes the origin of a Jewish feast, the feast ofPurim, but Purim itself is not the subject and no individual feast in the book is commemorated by Purim. The book's theme, rather, is the reversal of destiny through a sudden and unexpected turn of events: the Jews seem destined to be destroyed, but instead are saved. In literary criticism such a reversal is termed "peripety", and while on one level its use in Esther is simply a literary or aesthetic device, on another it is structural to the author's theme, suggesting that the power of God is at work behind human events.[12]
The book of Esther has moreAkkadian andAramaic loanwords than any other biblical work and the names of the key protagonists, Mordecai and Esther, for example, have been read as allusions to the godsMarduk andIshtar, who, symbolizing respectively Babylonia and Assyria, were twin powers that brought about the fall ofSusa, where the narrative of Esther is set and where theElamite godHumban/Humman (compare Haman)[13] exercised divine sovereignty. Purim practices like eating “Haman's ears”, ear-shaped loaves of bread or pieces of pastry are similar to those in Near Eastern ritual celebrations of Ishtar's cosmic victory.[14] Likewise other elements in Purim customs such as making a racket with aratchet, masquerading and drunkenness have all been adduced to propose that such a kind of pagan festival akin to rites associated with Ishtar ofNineveh, which shares these same features, lay behind the development of this story.[15]
King Ahasuerus, ruler of thePersian Empire, holds a lavish 180-day banquet for his court and dignitaries from across the 127 provinces of his empire (Esther 1:1–4), and afterwards, a seven-day banquet for all inhabitants of the capital city,Shushan (1:5–9). On the seventh day of the latter banquet, Ahasuerus orders the queen,Vashti, to display her beauty before the guests by coming before them wearing her crown (1:10–11). She refuses, infuriating Ahasuerus, who, on the advice of his counselors, removes her from her position as an example to other women who might be emboldened to disobey their husbands (1:12–19). A decree follows that "every man should bear rule in his own house" (1:20–22).
Ahasuerus then makes arrangements to choose a new queen from a selection of beautiful young women throughout the empire (2:1–4). Among these women is a Jewishorphan namedEsther, who was raised by her cousin or uncle,Mordecai (2:5–7). She finds favour in the King's eyes and is crowned his new queen, but does not reveal her Jewish heritage (2:8–20). Shortly afterwards, Mordecai discovers a plot by two courtiers,Bigthan and Teresh, to assassinate Ahasuerus. The conspirators are apprehended and hanged, and Mordecai's service to the King is officially recorded (2:21–23).
Ahasuerus appointsHaman as hisviceroy (3:1). Mordecai, who sits at the palace gates, falls into Haman's disfavour, as he refuses tobow down to him (3:2–5). Haman discovers that Mordecai refuses to bow on account of his being a Jew, and in revenge, plots to kill not just Mordecai but all the Jews in the empire (3:6). He obtains Ahasuerus' permission to execute this plan against payment of ten thousandtalents of silver, andcasts lots ("purim") to choose the date on which to do this – the thirteenth of the month ofAdar (3:7–12). Aroyal decree is issued throughout the kingdom to slay all Jews on that date (3:13–15).
When Mordecai discovers the plan, he goes into mourning and implores Esther to intercede with the King (4:1–5). But she fears presenting herself to the King unsummoned, an offense punishable by death (4:6–12). Instead, she directs Mordecai to have all Jews fast for three days for her and vows to fast as well (4:15–16.). On the third day, she goes to Ahasuerus, who stretches out his scepter to her to indicate that she should not be punished (5:1–2). She invites him to a feast in the company of Haman (5:3–5). During the feast, she asks them to attend a further feast the next evening (5:6–8). Meanwhile, Haman is again offended by Mordecai and, at his wife's suggestion, has agallows built to hang him (5:9–14).
That night, Ahasuerus cannot sleep and orders the court records be read to him (6:1). He is reminded that Mordecai interceded in the previous plot against his life and discovers that Mordecai never received any recognition (6:2–3). Just then, Haman appears to request the King's permission to hang Mordecai, but before he can make this request, Ahasuerus asks Haman what should be done for the man that the King wishes to honour (6:4–6). Assuming that the King is referring to Haman himself, Haman suggests that the man be dressed in the King's royal robes and crown and led around on the King's royal horse, while aherald calls: "See how the King honours a man he wishes to reward!" (6:7–9). To his surprise and horror, the King instructs Haman to do so to Mordecai (6:10–11).
Mordecai is honoured in this 1860 woodcut by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld
Immediately afterwards, Ahasuerus and Haman attend Esther's second banquet. The King promises to grant her any request, and she reveals that she is Jewish and that Haman is planning to exterminate her people, including herself (7:1–6). Overcome by rage, Ahasuerus leaves the room; meanwhile Haman stays behind and begs Esther for his life, falling upon her in desperation (7:7). The King comes back at this very moment and thinks Haman is sexually assaulting the queen; this makes him angrier and he orders Haman hanged on the very gallows that Haman had prepared for Mordecai (7:8–10).
Unable to annul a formal royal decree, the King instead adds to it, permitting the Jews to join and destroy any and all of those seeking to kill them (8:1–14).[16][17] On 13 Adar,Haman's ten sons and 500 other men are killed in Shushan (9:1–12). Upon hearing of this Esther requests it be repeated the next day, whereupon 300 more men are killed (9:13–15). In the other Persian provinces, 75,000 people are killed by the Jews, who are careful to take no plunder (9:16–17). Mordecai and Esther send letters throughout the provinces instituting an annual commemoration of the Jewish people's redemption, in a holiday calledPurim (lots) (9:20–28). Ahasuerus remains very powerful and continues his reign, with Mordecai assuming a prominent position in his court (10:1–3).
TheMegillat Esther (Book of Esther) became the last of the 24 books of theHebrew Bible to be canonized by the Sages of theGreat Assembly. According to theTalmud, it was aredaction by the Great Assembly of an original text by Mordecai.[18] It is usually dated to the 4th century BCE.[19][20]
The Greek book of Esther, included in theSeptuagint, is a retelling of the events of the Hebrew Book of Esther rather than a translation and recordsadditional traditions which do not appear in the traditional Hebrew version, in particular the identification of Ahasuerus withArtaxerxes II and details of various letters. It is dated around the late 2nd to early 1st century BCE.[21][22] TheCoptic andEthiopic versions of Esther are translations of the Greek rather than the Hebrew Esther.
A Latin version of Esther was produced byJerome for theVulgate. It translates the Hebrew Esther but interpolates translations of the Greek Esther where the latter provides additional material. Predating the Vulgate, however, theVetus Latina ("Old Latin") was apparently translated from a different Greek version not included in the Septuagint.[23]
Several Aramaictargumim of Esther were produced in theMiddle Ages, of which three survive – theTargum Rishon ("First Targum" or 1TgEsth) andTargum Sheni ("Second Targum" or 2TgEsth)[24][25] datedc. 500–1000 CE,[26] which include additional legends relating to Purim,[24] and theTargum Shelishi ("Third Targum" or 3TgEsth), whichBerliner andGoshen-Gottstein argued was the ur-Targum from which the others had been expanded, but which others consider only a late recension of the same. 3TgEsth is the most manuscript-stable of the three, and by far the most literal.[27][25]
The opening chapter of a hand-written scroll of the Book of Esther, with reader'sTorah pointer
The apparent historical difficulties, the internal inconsistencies, the pronounced symmetry of themes and events, the plenitude of quoted dialogue, and the gross exaggeration in the reporting of numbers (involving time, money, and people) all point to Esther as a work of fiction, its vivid characters (except for Xerxes) being the product of the author's creative imagination.[28] There is no reference to known historical events in the story; a general consensus, though this consensus has been challenged,[29][30] has maintained that the narrative ofEsther was invented in order to provide anetiology forPurim, and the name Ahasuerus is usually understood to refer to a fictionalizedXerxes I, who ruled theAchaemenid Empire between 486 and 465 BCE.[31] Longman, Dillard, and Jobes feel that the historical issues in the Book of Esther are not insurmountable; they can be resolved with some thought and effort. Longman and Dillard also feel that the book should be read as a historical narrative since the author presents it as history.[32][33]
Biblical scholarMichael Coogan further argues that the book contains specific details regarding certain subject matter (for example, Persian rule) which are historically inaccurate. For example, Coogan discusses an inaccuracy regarding the age of Esther's cousin (or, according to others, uncle)Mordecai.[34][35] In Esther 2:5–6, either Mordecai or his great-grandfather Kish is identified as having been exiled from Jerusalem to Babylon by KingNebuchadnezzar II in 597 BCE: "Mordecai son of Jair, the son of Shimei, the son of Kish, who had been carried into exile from Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon, among those taken captive withJeconiah king of Judah". If this refers to Mordecai, he would have had to live over a century to have witnessed the events described in the Book of Esther.[34] However, the verse may be read as referring not to Mordecai's exile to Babylon, but to his great-grandfather Kish's exile.[36][37][38]
In her article "The Book of Esther and Ancient Storytelling", biblical scholarAdele Berlin discusses the reasoning behind scholarly concern about the historicity of Esther. Much of this debate relates to the importance of distinguishing history and fiction within biblical texts, as Berlin argues, in order to gain a more accurate understanding of the history of the Israelite people.[39] Berlin quotes a series of scholars who suggest that the author of Esther did not mean for the book to be considered as a historical writing, but intentionally wrote it to be a historical novella.[40] The genre of novellas under which Esther falls was common during both the Persian andHellenistic periods to which scholars have dated the book of Esther (see for example the deuterocanonicalBook of Judith).[34][39]
However, there are certain elements of the book of Esther that are historically accurate.[41] The story told in the book of Esther takes place during the rule of Ahasuerus, whoamongst others has been identified as the 5th-century Persian kingXerxes I (reigned 486–465 BCE).[7] The author also displays an accurate knowledge of Persian customs and palaces.[37] "Levenson claims that it is 'best seen as a historical novella set within the Persian empire'".[42]The New Oxford Annotated Bible (2018) states "Esther is not a work of history but a historical novella, that is, a fictional story set within a historical framework."[43]Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones agrees (in 2023).[44]The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia (1939) offers a dissenting opinion, stating that "research has heaped up confirmation of the historical character of the book."[45] Baldwin (1984) sees the Book of Esther as true and historically accurate, quoting Robert Gordis: “There is nothing intrinsically impossible or improbable in the central incident when the accretions due to the storyteller's art are set aside.”[46]
In the mainstream academia, the consensus is that "the book is fictional, a kind of historical novella written to provide an etiology, a narrative explanation, for the Jewish festival of Purim."[47] According to Noss (1993), the historicity of the work is supported by the precision with which the author locates his story within time; the inclusion of the Persian names of the months is part of the author's case for historical authenticity.[48]
Those arguing in favour of a historical reading of Esther most commonly identify Ahasuerus withXerxes I (ruled 486–465 BCE),[7] although in the past it was often assumed that he wasArtaxerxes II (ruled 405–359 BCE). The HebrewAhasuerus (ʔaḥašwērōš) is most likely derived fromPersianXšayārša, the origin of the GreekXerxes. The Greek historianHerodotus wrote that Xerxes sought hisharem after being defeated in theGreco-Persian Wars. He makes no reference to individual members of the harem except for a domineeringQueen consort namedAmestris, whose father,Otanes, was one of Xerxes's generals. (In contrast, the Greek historianCtesias refers to a similar father-in-law/general figure named Onaphas.) Amestris has often been identified withVashti, but this identification is problematic, as Amestris remained a powerful figure well into the reign of her son,Artaxerxes I, whereas Vashti is portrayed as dismissed in the early part of Xerxes's reign.[49] Alternative attempts have been made to identify her with Esther,[50] although Esther is an orphan whose father was a Jew named Abihail.
As for the identity of Mordecai, the similar namesMarduka andMarduku have been found as the name of officials in the Persian court in over thirty texts from the period of Xerxes I and his fatherDarius I, and may refer to up to four individuals, one of whom might be the model for the biblical Mordecai.
The "Old Greek" Septuagint version of Esther translates the name Ahasuerus asArtaxerxes,[51] a Greek name derived from the PersianArtaxšaθra.Josephus too relates that this was the name by which he was known to the Greeks, and theMidrashic textEsther Rabba also makes the identification.Bar Hebraeus identified Ahasuerus explicitly as Artaxerxes II; however, the names are not necessarily equivalent: Hebrew has a form of the nameArtaxerxes distinct fromAhasuerus, and a direct Greek rendering ofAhasuerus is used by both Josephus and the Septuagint for occurrences of the name outside the Book of Esther. Instead, the Hebrew name Ahasuerus accords with an inscription of the time that notes that Artaxerxes II was named alsoAršu, understood as a shortening ofAḫšiyaršu the Babylonian rendering of the PersianXšayārša (Xerxes), through which the Hebrewʔaḥašwērōš (Ahasuerus) is derived.[52]Ctesias related that Artaxerxes II was also calledArsicas which is understood as a similar shortening with the Persian suffix-ke that is applied to shortened names.Deinon related that Artaxerxes II was also calledOarses which is also understood to be derived fromXšayārša.[52]
Another view attempts to identify him instead with Artaxerxes I (ruled 465–424 BCE), whose Babylonian concubine, Kosmartydene, was the mother of his sonDarius II (ruled 424–405 BCE). Jewish tradition relates that Esther was the mother of a King Darius and so some try to identify Ahasuerus with Artaxerxes I and Esther with Kosmartydene.
Based on the view that the Ahasuerus of theBook of Tobit is identical with that of the Book of Esther, some have also identified him as Nebuchadnezzar's allyCyaxares (ruled 625–585 BCE). In certain manuscripts of Tobit, the former is calledAchiachar, which, like theGreekCyaxares, is thought to be derived from PersianHuwaxšaθra. Depending on the interpretation of Esther 2:5–6, Mordecai or his great-grandfather Kish was carried away fromJerusalem withJeconiah byNebuchadnezzar, in 597 BCE. The view that it was Mordecai would be consistent with the identification of Ahasuerus with Cyaxares. Identifications with other Persian monarchs have also been suggested.
Jacob Hoschander has argued that the name of Haman and that of his father Hamedatha are mentioned byStrabo asOmanus andAnadatus, worshipped with Anahita in the city ofZela. Hoschander suggests that Haman may, if the connection is correct, be a priestly title and not a proper name.[52] Strabo's names are unattested in Persian texts as gods; however the Talmud[53] and Josephus[54] interpret the description of courtiers bowing to Haman in Esther 3:2 as worship. (Other scholars assume "Omanus" refers toVohu Mana.)[55][56][57]
In the Book of Esther, theTetragrammaton does not appear, but some argue it is present, in hidden form, in four complexacrostics in Hebrew: the initial or last letters of four consecutive words, either forwards or backwards comprise YHWH. These letters were distinguished in at least three ancient Hebrew manuscripts in red.[58][note 1]
Christine Hayes contrasts the Book of Esther withapocalyptic writings, theBook of Daniel in particular: both Esther and Daniel depict an existential threat to the Jewish people, but while Daniel commands the Jews to wait faithfully for God to resolve the crisis, in Esther the crisis is resolved entirely through human action and national solidarity. God, in fact, is not mentioned, Esther is portrayed asassimilated to Persian culture, and Jewish identity in the book is anethnic category rather than areligious one.[59]
This contrasts with traditional Jewish commentaries, such as the commentary of theVilna Gaon, which states "But in every verse it discusses the great miracle. However, this miracle was in a hidden form, occurring through apparently natural processes, not like the Exodus from Egypt, which openly revealed the might of God."[60] This follows the approach of theTalmud,[61] which states that "(The Book of) Esther is referenced in the Torah in the verse 'And I shall surely hide (in Hebrew, 'haster astir,' related to 'Esther') My Face from them on that day.[62]
André Lacocque also sees the Book of Esther as being fundamentally theological and that its main message was to correct the mistakes of ancestors. These mistakes included being lenient against Amalekites and plundering goods, whichKing Saul was guilty of. Another message was that diasporic Jews were responsible for the welfare of their host community, who held unpredictable views about Jews. These views ranged from violent antisemitism to passionatephilosemitism, where Jews are arbitrarily promoted to higher positions due to being 'sexy'. Lacocque compares this toJoseph's governance of Egypt in theBook of Genesis, which benefitted native Egyptians and Hebrew immigrants.[63]
Azīz Pajand, a Persian Jew, published "Purim" in 1966, which offered an Iranophilic interpretation of the Book of Esther. Here, Haman was the Amalekite enemy of 'pure-blooded Iranians' and Jews. Thus, Purim became a holiday that celebrates salvation for all Iranians from the 'Hamanites'. He also emphasizes the role of Jewish-Persian cooperation in realizing the Book of Esther's denouement. Pajand justified his interpretation to dispel accusations that the Book of Esther was anti-Iranian and because he believed that Iranians were "travellers in the way of truth". In contrast, Haman violated theZoroastrian ideal of “Good thoughts; Good words; and Good deeds”.[65] Lacocque likewise observes that the "enemies of the Jews" were never arbitrarily branded as Amalekites before being killed, in comparison to Haman and his sons, which discredits any motive of Jewish ultranationalism.[63]
Albert Barnes similarly argues that thephilosemitic Persian establishment was perplexed at Haman's decree (Esther 3:15),[66] and that they were supportive of Esther's efforts against the "enemies of the Jews". The latter were mostly found "among the idolatrous people of the subject nations", whom the Persians did not care for.[67] The ones in Susa, however, consisted of Haman's faction, led by his ten sons,[68] and fugitives who believed they were free to kill the Jews once the latter's "privileges have expired", thus why they were killed the next day.[69]Matthew Poole sees the subsequent hanging of Haman's sons as a cruel Jewish and Persian custom that punishes offenders for 'abusing' the king.[70]
John Gill sees the conversion of Persian allies (Esther 8:17) as an example of 'conversion under duress' but does not discount alternative explanations. They include being impressed by the 'Divine Providence' working in the Jews' favor and seeking the favor of Esther and Mordecai, who gained immense power.[71] But ultimately, the Persian allies and Jews celebrated Purim together and taught their children to read the Book of Esther (Esther 9:27).[72]
According to Rabbi Mordechai Neugroschel, there is a code in the Book of Esther which lies in the names of Haman's 10 sons. Three of the Hebrew letters—a tav, a shin and a zayin—are written smaller than the rest, while a vav is written larger. The outsized vav—which represents the number six—corresponds to the sixth millennium of the world since creation, which, according to Jewish tradition, is the period between 1240 and 2240 CE. As for the tav, shin and zayin, their numerical values add up to 707. Put together, these letters refer to the Jewish year 5707, which corresponds to the secular 1946–1947. In his research, Neugroschel noticed that ten Nazi defendants in the Nuremberg Trials were executed by hanging on 16 October 1946, which was the date of the final judgement day of Judaism,Hoshana Rabbah. Additionally,Hermann Göring, an eleventh Nazi official sentenced to death, committed suicide, parallel to Haman's daughter in Tractate Megillah.[73][74]
An additional six chapters appear interspersed in Esther in theSeptuagint, an early Greek translation of the Bible. This was noted byJerome in compiling the LatinVulgate. Additionally, the Greek text contains many small changes in the meaning of the main text. Jerome recognized the former as additions not present in theHebrew Text and placed them at the end of his Latin translation. This placement is used in Catholic Bible translations based primarily on the Vulgate, such as theDouay–Rheims Bible and theKnox Bible, with chapters numbered up to 16.[75] In contrast, theNova Vulgata incorporates the additions to Esther directly into the narrative itself, as do most modern Catholic English translations based on the original Hebrew and Greek (e.g.,Revised Standard Version Catholic Edition,New American Bible,New Revised Standard Version Catholic Edition). The numbering system for the additions therefore differs with each translation. The Nova Vulgata accounts for the additional verses by numbering them as extensions of the verses immediately following or preceding them (e.g., Esther 11:2–12 in the old Vulgate becomes Esther 1:1a–1k in the Nova Vulgata), while the NAB and its successor, the NABRE, assign letters of the alphabet as chapter headings for the additions (e.g., Esther 11:2–12:6 in the Vulgate becomes Esther A:1–17). The RSVCE and the NRSVCE place the additional material into the narrative, but retain the chapter and verse numbering of the old Vulgate.
an opening prologue that describes a dream had by Mordecai, printed ahead of chapter 1 in RSVCE
the contents of the decree against the Jews, included within chapter 3 in RSVCE
an extension to the dialogue between Hathach and Mordecai, placed after 4:8 in RSVCE
prayers for God's intervention offered by Mordecai and by Esther, both in chapter in RSVCE
an expansion of the scene in which Esther appears before the king, with a mention of God's intervention, included in chapter 5 in RSVCE
a copy of the decree in favor of the Jews, added to chapter 8 in RSVCE
a passage in which Mordecai interprets his dream (from the prologue) in terms of the events that followed, added to chapter 10 in RSVCE
a colophon appended to the end of chapter 10, also referenced as 11:1, which reads:
In the fourth year of the reign of Ptolemy and Cleopatra, Dositheus, who said that he was a priest and a Levite, and his son Ptolemy brought to Egypt the preceding Letter about Purim, which they said was authentic and had been translated by Lysimachus son of Ptolemy, one of the residents of Jerusalem.
— (NRSV)
It is unclear to which version of Greek Esther this colophon refers, and who exactly are the figures mentioned in it.[77]
By the time the Greek version of Esther was written, the foreign power visible on the horizon as a future threat to Judah was the kingdom ofMacedonia underAlexander the Great, who defeated the Persian empire about 150 years after the time of the story of Esther; theSeptuagint version noticeably calls Haman a "Bougaion" (Ancient Greek:βουγαῖον), possibly in the Homeric sense of "bully" or "braggart",[78] whereas the Hebrew text describes him as anAgagite.
The canonicity of these Greek additions has been a subject of scholarly disagreement practically since their first appearance in theSeptuagint. – Martin Luther, being perhaps the most vocalReformation-era critic of the work, considered even the original Hebrew version to be of very doubtful value.[79]
TheCouncil of Trent, the summation of theCounter-Reformation, reconfirmed the entire book,[81] both Hebrew text and Greek additions, as canonical. The Book of Esther is used twice in commonly used sections of the CatholicLectionary.[82] In both cases, the text used is not only taken from a Greek addition. The readings also include the prayer ofMordecai, and nothing ofEsther's own words is ever used.[clarification needed] TheEastern Orthodox Church uses the Septuagint version of Esther, as it does for all of the Old Testament.
In contrast, the additions are included in theBiblical apocrypha, usually printed in a separate section (if at all) inProtestant bibles. The additions, called "The rest of the Book of Esther", are specifically listed in theThirty-Nine Articles, Article VI, of theChurch of England as non-canonical, though "read for example of life and instruction of manners".[83]
In 1660,Rembrandt van Rijn's painting ofEsther's Banquet depicts how Esther approached the men at their level to make the request of erasing the decree.
The eighth poem of 14 in Rossetti's sonnet-of-sonnets sequenceMonna Innominata portrays Esther as brave, beautiful, wise and witty, as 'subtle as a snake', and the woman who 'built her people's house that it should stand'.
In 1958, a book entitledBehold Your Queen! was written byGladys Malvern and illustrated by her sister,Corinne Malvern. It was chosen as a selection of the Junior Literary Guild.
TV movie from theBible Collection that follows the biblical account very closely,Esther, starredLouise Lombard in the title role andF. Murray Abraham as Mordecai.[88]
On March 8, 2011, theMaccabeats released a music video called "Purim Song".[89]
2012
Book
J. T. Waldman
In 2012, a graphic adaptation of the Book of Esther was illustrated by J. T. Waldman and appeared in volume one ofThe Graphic Canon, edited byRuss Kick and published bySeven Stories Press.
Hunt, Angela "Esther: Royal Beauty" (A Dangerous Beauty Novel) (2015)
2016
Book
Rebecca Kanner
Kanner, Rebecca, "Esther" (2016)
2011
Book
Joan Wolf
Wolf, Joan,"A Reluctant Queen: The Love Story of Esther" (2011)
2011
Book
Roseanna M. White
White, Roseanna, M. "Jewel of Persia" (2011)
2020
Book
Jill Eileen Smith
Smith, Jill, Eileen."Star of Persia: Esther's Story" (2020)
2013
Book
H.B. Moore
H.B. Moore."Esther the Queen" (2013)
2014
Movie
CJ Kramer
"Megillas Lester", an animated comedy loosely based on the Book of Esther, where a boy named Daniel Lesterovich (a.k.a., "Lester") is knocked out and travels back in time to the story of the Megillah, and nearly changes history by accidentally saving Queen Vashti. (2014)[91]
2020
Book
Elizabeth Mack
Mack, Elizabeth. "The Queen of Persia" (2020)
2019
Book
Diana Taylor
Taylor, Diana, Wallis."Hadassah, Queen Esther of Persia" (2019)
^Browning, W. R. F., ed. (2009)."Ahasuerus".A Dictionary of the Bible (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 7.doi:10.1093/acref/9780199543984.001.0001.ISBN978-0-19-954398-4.Archived from the original on 2020-09-03. Retrieved2020-04-17.The story is fictitious and written to provide an account of the origin of the feast of Purim.
^abBaumgarten, Albert I.; Sperling, S. David; Sabar, Shalom (2007). Skolnik, Fred; Berenbaum, Michael (eds.).Encyclopaedia Judaica. Vol. 18 (2 ed.). Farmington Hills, MI: Macmillan Reference. p. 216.
^abLarkin, Katrina J.A. (1996).Ruth and Esther (Old Testament Guides). Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Academic Press. p. 71.
^Crawford, Sidnie White (1998). "Esther". In Newsom, Carol A.; Ringe, Sharon H. (eds.).Women's Bible Commentary. Louisville: Westminster John Knox. p. 202.
^Wexler p.695: ‘Any resemblance between Ishtar's ear-shaped pastries and Haman's ear-shaped pastries may be the accidental result of later practice, but a common denominator is also possible, in that the original function of sacrifice is thought to be partaking of, and eating, the god. The eating of Haman represents symbolically the eating of a slain enemy god in order to absorb his power, such as is expressed in the Cultic commentaries
^abProf. Michael Sokoloff,The Targums to the Book of Esther, Bar-Ilan University 's Parashat Hashavua Study Center, Parashat Tezaveh/Zakhor 5764 March 6, 2004
^abS. Kaufman,Cal Targum Texts, Text base and variants, The Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon, Hebrew Union College – Jewish Institute of Religion
^Alan J. Hauser, Duane Frederick Watson,A History of Biblical Interpretation: The Ancient Period, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2003
^Meyers, Carol (2007)."16. Esther". In Barton, John; Muddiman, John (eds.).The Oxford Bible Commentary. Oxford University Press. p. 325.ISBN9780199277186.Archived from the original on 2023-11-11. Retrieved2019-03-24.Genre and Purpose
^Browning, W. R. F., ed. (2009)."Ahasuerus".A Dictionary of the Bible (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.doi:10.1093/acref/9780199543984.001.0001.ISBN978-0-19-954398-4.Archived from the original on 2020-09-03. Retrieved2020-04-17.The story is fictitious and written to provide an account of the origin of the feast of Purim; the book contains no references to the known historical events of the reign of Xerxes.
^Jobes, Karen H. (1999).Esther. Grand Rapids, Mich: Zondervan. p. 31.ISBN978-0-310-20672-9.
^Longman, Tremper; Dillard, Raymond B. (2006).An Introduction to the Old Testament. Grand Rapids, Mich: Zondervan Publishing Company. p. 218.ISBN978-0-310-26341-8.
^abcCoogan, Michael David,A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament: The Hebrew Bible in Its Context (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 396.
^Sidnie White Crawford, "Esther", inThe New Interpreters Study Bible New Revised Standard Version with the Apocrypha, ed. Walter J. Harrison and Donald Senior (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2003), 689–90.
^abBromiley, Geoffrey W., ed. (1982)."Book of Esther".International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, Volume II. Wm. B. Eerdmans Pub. Co. p. 159.ISBN9780802837820.
^Sarbanani, Morteza Arabzadeh (2023). "Revisiting the Book of Esther: Assessing the Historical Significance of the Masoretic Version for the Achaemenid History".Persica Antiqua.3 (4):19–32.doi:10.22034/pa.2022.344449.1009.
^Carruthers, Jo (14 January 2008).Esther Through the Centuries. Malden, MA ; Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 50.ISBN978-1-4051-3213-8.OCLC123539343. Retrieved13 April 2025.Some recent scholars seek to maintain a fruitful tension between fiction and truth in their claims for Esther. Clines asserts the 'current consensus of opinion' that Esther is a 'historical novel' (1984a: 256; also Moore [1971] 1984: lii). Levenson claims that it is 'best seen as a historical novella set within the Persian empire', endorsing Fox's claim that Esther's frame of historical reference may be different to a modern reader's: 'How exactly an ancient religious community – or a modern one – understands "actual historical events" is a complicated epistemological and hermeneutical issue' (1997: 26).
^Urquhart, John (1939). Orr, James (ed.)."Esther, Book of".International Standard Bible Encyclopedia Online. Retrieved2025-04-13.
^Baldwin, Joyce G. (1984).Esther. Leicester: Apollos. p. 24.ISBN978-0-87784-262-0. Also, see page 33 for a list of other scholars who have viewed the book of Esther as historical.
^Hubbard, Robert L. (2007). "Vashti, Amestris and Esther 1,9".Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft.119 (2):259–271.doi:10.1515/ZAW.2007.020.S2CID170144015.
^Church of England,Articles of ReligionArchived 2019-02-27 at theWayback Machine, accessed 31 December 2022: they are included in the section headed: "And the other Books (as Hierome saith) the Church doth read for example of life and instruction of manners; but yet doth it not apply them to establish any doctrine; such are these following:..."
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