 | |
 Aerial view of MSFC in 2016. Note that the buildings in the center of the image and on the right (4202 and 4200) have been demolished.[1] | |
| Agency overview | |
|---|---|
| Formed | July 1, 1960 |
| Preceding agency | |
| Jurisdiction | U.S. federal government |
| Headquarters | Redstone Arsenal,Madison County,Alabama 34°39′3″N86°40′22″W / 34.65083°N 86.67278°W /34.65083; -86.67278 |
| Employees | 6,000, including 2,300 civil servants[2]: 1 |
| Annual budget | $2 Billion[2]: 1 |
| Agency executive |
|
| Parent agency | NASA |
| Website | nasa |
Marshall Space Flight Center (officially theGeorge C. Marshall Space Flight Center;MSFC), located inRedstone Arsenal, Alabama (Huntsville postal address),[3] is theU.S. government's civilianrocketry andspacecraft propulsion research center.[2] As the largestNASA center, MSFC's first mission was developing theSaturn launch vehicles for theApollo program. Marshall has been the lead center for theSpace Shuttle main propulsion andexternal tank; payloads and related crew training;International Space Station (ISS) design and assembly; computers, networks, and information management; and theSpace Launch System. Located on theRedstone Arsenal near Huntsville, MSFC is named in honor ofGeneral of the ArmyGeorge C. Marshall.
The center contains theHuntsville Operations Support Center (HOSC), also known as theInternational Space Station Payload Operations Center. This facility supports ISS launch, payload, and experiment activities at theKennedy Space Center. The HOSC also monitors rocket launches fromCape Canaveral Space Force Station when a Marshall Center payload is on board.
MSFC has been NASA's lead center for the development of rocket propulsion systems and technologies. During the 1960s, the activities were largely devoted to theApollo Program, with theSaturn family of launch vehicles designed and tested at MSFC. MSFC also had a major role in post-Apollo activities, includingSkylab, theSpace Shuttle, andSpacelab and other experimental activities which made use of the Shuttle's cargo bay.
After the May 1945 end ofWorld War II in Germany, the US initiatedOperation Paperclip to collect a number of scientists and engineers who had been at the center of Nazi Germany's advanced military technologies. In August 1945, 127 missile specialists led byWernher von Braun signed work contracts with theUnited States Army Ordnance Corps.[citation needed] Most of them had worked on theV-2 missile development under von Braun atPeenemünde. The missile specialists were sent toFort Bliss, Texas, joining the Army's newly formed Research and Development Division Sub-office (Rocket).[citation needed]
For the next five years, von Braun and the German scientists and engineers were primarily engaged in adapting and improving the V-2 missile for U.S. applications. Testing was conducted at nearbyWhite Sands Proving Grounds, New Mexico. von Braun was allowed to use aWAC Corporal rocket as a second stage for a V-2; the combination, called Bumper, reached a record-breaking 250 mi (400 km) altitude.[4]
During World War II, the production and storage of ordnance shells was conducted by three arsenals nearby toHuntsville, Alabama. After the war, these were closed, and the three areas were combined to formRedstone Arsenal. In 1949, theSecretary of the Army approved the transfer of the rocket research and development activities fromFort Bliss to the new center at Redstone Arsenal. Beginning in April 1950, about 1,000 persons were involved in the transfer, including von Braun's group. At this time, R&D responsibility for guided missiles was added, and studies began on a medium-range guided missile that eventually became thePGM-11 Redstone.[citation needed]
Over the next decade, missile development at Redstone Arsenal greatly expanded. However, von Braun kept space firmly in his mind, and published a widely read article on this subject.[5] In mid-1952, the Germans were hired as regular civil service employees, with most becoming U.S. citizens in 1954-55. Von Braun was appointed Chief of the Guided Missile Development Division.[6]
In September 1954, von Braun proposed using the Redstone as the main booster of a multi-stage rocket for launching artificial satellites. A year later, a study forProject Orbiter was completed, detailing plans and schedules for a series of scientific satellites. However, the Army's official role in the U.S. space satellite program was delayed after higher authorities elected to use theVanguard rocket then being developed by theNaval Research Laboratory (NRL).[citation needed]
In February 1956, theArmy Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA) was established. One of the primary programs was a 1,500-mile (2,400 km), single-stage missile that was started the previous year; intended for both the U.S. Army and U.S. Navy, this was designated thePGM-19 Jupiter. Guidance component testing for this Jupiter intermediate range ballistic missile (IRBM) began in March 1956 on a modified Redstone missile dubbed Jupiter A while re-entry vehicle testing began in September 1956 on a Redstone with spin-stabilized upper stages. This ABMA developedJupiter-C was composed of a Redstone rocket first stage and two upper stages for RV tests or three upper stages for Explorer satellite launches. ABMA had originally planned the 20 September 1956 flight as a satellite launch but, by direct intervention of Eisenhower, was limited to the use of 2 upper stages for an RV test flight traveling 3,350 mi (5,390 km) downrange and attaining an altitude of 682 mi (1,098 km). While the Jupiter-C capability was such that it could have placed the fourth stage in orbit, that mission had been assigned to the NRL.[7][8] Later Jupiter-C flights would be used to launch satellites. The first Jupiter IRBM flight took place from Cape Canaveral in March 1957 with the first successful flight to full range on 31 May.[9] Jupiter was eventually taken over by the U.S. Air Force.[10]
The Soviet Union launchedSputnik 1, the first artificialEarth orbiting satellite, on October 4, 1957. This was followed on November 3 with the second satellite,Sputnik 2. The United States attempted a satellite launch on December 6 using the NRL's Vanguard rocket, but it barely struggled off the ground, then fell back and exploded. On January 31, 1958, after finally receiving permission to proceed, von Braun and the ABMA space development team used a Jupiter C in aJuno I configuration (addition of a fourth stage) to successfully placeExplorer 1, the first US satellite, into orbit around the Earth.[citation needed]
Effective at the end of March 1958, the U.S. Army Ordnance Missile Command (AOMC), encompassing the ABMA and its newly operational space programs. In August, AOMC andAdvanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA, a Department of Defense organization) jointly initiated a program managed by ABMA to develop a large space booster of approximately 1.5-million-pounds thrust using a cluster of available rocket engines. In early 1959, this vehicle was designatedSaturn.[citation needed]
On April 2, PresidentDwight D. Eisenhower recommended to Congress that a civilian agency be established to direct nonmilitary space activities. On July 29, the President signed theNational Aeronautics and Space Act, forming theNational Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). NASA incorporated theNational Advisory Committee for Aeronautics,Ames Research Center,Langley Research Center, andLewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory.[citation needed] Despite the existence of an official space agency, the Army continued with far-reaching space programs. In June 1959, a secret study onProject Horizon was completed by ABMA, detailing plans for using the Saturn booster in establishing a crewed Army outpost on the Moon. Project Horizon was rejected, and the Saturn program was transferred to NASA.[citation needed]
Project Mercury was officially named on 26 November 1958. With a future goal of crewed flight, monkeys Able andMiss Baker were the first living creatures recovered from outer space on May 28, 1959. They had been carried in thenose cone on a Jupiter missile to an altitude of 300 mi (480 km) and a distance of 1,500 mi (2,400 km), successfully withstanding 38 times the normal pull of gravity.[citation needed] On October 21, 1959, President Eisenhower approved the transfer of all Army space-related activities to NASA.
On July 1, 1960 the Marshall Space Flight Center, or the MSFC, was created out of the old Redstone Arsenal. The Center was then also placed under the jurisdiction of the recently created NASA, and Wernher von Braun was appointed as the Center's first NASA Director. Eberhart Rees, who was a former associate of von Braun from Germany, was also appointed as von Braun's Deputy for Research and Development.
At the time of the creation of the MSFC, 4,670 civilian employees, about $100 million worth of buildings and equipment, and 1,840 acres (7.4 km2) of land were transferred from AOMC/ABMA to the new MSFC. The official opening date of the MSFC had been July 1, 1960, but its dedication ceremony took place two months later on September 8. At the dedication ceremony President Eisenhower gave a speech. The MSFC was named in honor ofGeneralGeorge C. Marshall.[11]
The administrative activities in MSFC were led by persons with backgrounds in traditional U.S. Government functions, but all of the technical heads were individuals who had assisted von Braun in the many successes at the MSFC'S predecessor, theABMA, where von Braun had been the Technical Director. The initial technical leaders of the new MSFC had all been former colleagues of von Braun starting back in Germany before World War II. These technical department and/ or division heads were as follows:[12]
With the exception of Koelle, all of the technical department and/ or division heads had come to the United States underOperation Paperclip after working together atPeenemünde. Von Braun knew well the capabilities of these individuals and had great confidence in them. In the following decade of developing hardware and technical operations that established new levels of complexity, there was never a single failure of their booster designs during crewed flight.[citation needed]
The initial main project at MSFC was the final preparation of a Redstone rocket forProject Mercury to lift aspace capsule carrying the first American into space. Originally scheduled to take place in October 1960, this was postponed several time and on May 5, 1961,astronautAlan Shepard made America's firstsub-orbital spaceflight.[citation needed]
By 1965, MSFC had about 7,500 government employees. In addition, most of the prime contractors for launch vehicles and related major items (includingNorth American Aviation,Chrysler,Boeing,Douglas Aircraft,Rocketdyne, andIBM) collectively had approximately a similar number of employees working in MSFC facilities.[citation needed]
Several support contracting firms were also involved in the programs; the largest of these was Brown Engineering Company (BECO, laterTeledyne Brown Engineering), the first high-technology firm in Huntsville and by this time having some 3,500 employees. In the Saturn-Apollo activities, BECO/TBE provided about 20-millionman-hours of support. Milton K. Cummings was the BECO president, Joseph C. Moquin the executive vice president, William A. Girdini led the engineering design and test work, and Raymond C. Watson, Jr., directed the research and advanced systems activities.Cummings Research Park, the second largest park of this type in the US, was named for Cummings in 1973.[citation needed]
On May 25, 1961, just 20 days after Shepard's flight, PresidentJohn F. Kennedy committed the US to a lunar landing by the end of the decade.[14] The primary mission of MSFC under theApollo program was developing the heavy-lift Saturn family rockets. This required the development and qualification of three new liquid-fueled rocket engines, theJ-2,F-1, andH-1. Additionally, the existingRL10 was improved for use on the Saturn S-IV stage.Leland F. Belew managed the Engine Development Office.[15] The F-1 engine is the most powerful single-nozzle liquid-fueled rocket engine ever used in service; each produced 1.5-million-pounds thrust. Originally started by the U.S. Air Force, responsibility for the development was taken over by ABMA in 1959, and the first test firings at MSFC were in December 1963.[citation needed]
The original vehicle, designatedSaturn I, consisted of two propulsion stages and an instrument unit; it was first tested in flight on October 27, 1961. The first stage (S-I) had a cluster of eight H-1 engines, giving approximately 1.5-million-pounds thrust total. The four outboard engines weregimbaled to allow vehicle steering. The second stage (SIV) had six gimbaled LR10A-3 engines, producing a combined 90-thousand-pounds thrust. Ten Saturn Is were used in flight-testing of Apolloboilerplate units. Five of the test flights also carried important auxiliary scientific experiments.[citation needed]
TheSaturn IB (alternatively known as the Uprated Saturn I) also had two propulsion stages and an instrument unit. The first stage (S-IB) also had eight H-1 engines with four gimballed, but the stage had eight fixed fins of equal size fitted to the sides to provide aerodynamic stability. The second stage (S-IVB) had a single J-2 engine that gave a more powerful 230-thousand-pounds thrust. The J-2 was gimbaled and could also be restarted during flight. The vehicle was first flight-tested on February 26, 1966. Fourteen Saturn 1Bs (or partial vehicles) were built, with five used in uncrewed testing and five others used in crewed missions, the last on July 15, 1975.[citation needed]
TheSaturn V, anexpendablehuman-rated heavy-lift vehicle, was the most vital element in the Apollo Program. Designed under the direction ofArthur Rudolph, the Saturn V holds the record as the largest and most powerful launch vehicle ever brought to operational status from a combined height, weight, and payload standpoint. The Saturn V consisted of three propulsion stages and an instrument unit. The first stage (S-IC), had five F-1 engines, giving a combined total of 7.5-million-pounds thrust. The S-II second stage had five J-2 engines with a total of 1.0-million-pounds thrust. The third stage (S-IVB) had a single gimballed J-2 engine with 200-thousand-pounds thrust. As previously noted, the J-2 engine could be restarted in flight. The basic configuration for this heavy-lift vehicle was selected in early 1963, and the name Saturn V was applied at that time (configurations that might have led to Saturn II, III, and IV were discarded).[citation needed]
While the three propulsion stages were the "muscle" of the Saturn V, theInstrument Unit (IU) was the "brains." The IU was on a 260-inch (6.6-m) diameter, 36-inch (91-cm) high, ring that was held between the third propulsion stage and the LM. It contained the basic guidance system components – a stable platform, accelerometers, a digital computer, and control electronics – as well as radar, telemetry, and other units. Basically the same IU configuration was used on the Saturn I and IB. With IBM as the prime contractor, the IU was the only full Saturn component manufactured in Huntsville.[citation needed]
The first Saturn V test flight was made on November 9, 1967. On July 16, 1969, as its crowning achievement in the Apollo space program, a Saturn V vehicle lifted the Apollo 11 spacecraft and three astronauts on their journey to the Moon. Other Apollo launches continued through December 6, 1972. The last Saturn V flight was on May 14, 1973, in the Skylab Program (described later). A total of 15 Saturn Vs were built; 13 functioned flawlessly, and the other two remain unused.[citation needed]
Wernher von Braun believed that the personnel designing the space vehicles should have direct, hands-on participation in the building and testing of the hardware. For this, MSFC had facilities where prototypes of every type of Saturn vehicle were fabricated. Large, special-purpose computers were used in the checkout procedures. Static test stands had been constructed at ABMA for the Redstone and Jupiter rockets. In 1961, the Jupiter stand was modified to test Saturn 1 and 1B stages. A number of other test stands followed, the largest being theSaturn V Dynamic Test Stand completed in 1964. At 475 ft (145 m) in height, the entire Saturn V could be accommodated. Also completed in 1964, the S1C Static Test Stand was for live firing of the five F-1 engines of the first stage. Delivering a total of 7.5-million-pounds thrust, the tests produced earthquake-like rumbles throughout the Huntsville area and could be heard as far as 100 mi (160 km) away.[citation needed]
As the Saturn activities progressed, external facilities and factories were needed. In 1961, The Michoud Rocket Factory near New Orleans, Louisiana, was selected as the Saturn V rocket manufacturing site. A 13,500 acres (55 km2) isolated area inHancock County, Mississippi was selected to conduct Saturn tests. Known as the Mississippi Test Facility (later renamed theJohn C. Stennis Space Center), this was primarily to test the vehicles built at therocket factory.[citation needed]
From the start, MSFC has had strong research projects in science and engineering. Two of the early activities, Highwater and Pegasus, were performed on a non-interference basis while testing the Saturn I vehicle.[citation needed]
InProject Highwater, a dummy Saturn I second stage was filled with 23,000 US gallons (87 m3) of water as ballast. After burnout of the first stage, explosive charges released the water into the upper atmosphere. The project answered questions about the diffusion of liquid propellants in the event that a rocket was destroyed at high altitude. Highwater experiments were carried out in April and November 1962.[citation needed]
Under thePegasus Satellite Program, the Saturn I second stage was instrumented to study the frequency and penetration depth ofmicrometeoroids. Two large panels were folded into the empty stage and unfolded in orbit, presenting 2,300 ft2 (210-m2) of instrumented surface. Three Pegasus satellites were launched during 1965, with each one staying in orbit from 3 to 13 years.[citation needed]
There were six Apollo missions that landed on the Moon:Apollo 11,12,14,15,16, and17.Apollo 13 had been intended as a landing, but only circled the Moon and returned to Earth after an oxygen tank ruptured and crippled power in the CSM. Except for Apollo 11, all of the missions carried anApollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package (ALSEP), composed of equipment for seven scientific experiments plus a central remote control station with aradioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG). Scientists from MSFC were among the co-investigators.[citation needed]
TheLunar Roving Vehicle (LRV), popularly known as the "Moon Buggy," was developed at MSFC to provide transportation for exploring a limited amount of the Moon's surface. Not intended in the original planning, by 1969 it became clear that an LRV would be needed to maximize the scientific returns. An LRV was carried on the last three missions, allowing an area similar in size to Manhattan Island to be explored. Outbound they carried an ALSEP to be set up; on the return trip, they carried more than 200 pounds of lunar rock and soil samples.Saverio "Sonny" Morea was the LRV project manager at MSFC.[16]
TheApollo Applications Program (AAP) involved science-based crewed space missions using surplus Apollo equipment. The lack of interest by Congress resulted in most of the proposed activities being abandoned, but an orbital workshop remained of interest.[citation needed] In December 1965, MSFC was authorized to begin the Orbital Workshop as a formal project. At a meeting at MSFC on August 19, 1966,George E. Mueller, NASA Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight, pinned down the final concept for the major elements. MSFC was assigned responsibility for the development of the orbiting space station hardware as well as overall systems engineering and integration.[citation needed]
For testing and mission simulation, a 75-foot (23 m)-diameter water-filled tank, theNeutral Buoyancy Facility, was opened at MSFC in March 1968. Engineers and astronauts used this underwater facility to simulate theweightlessness (or zero-g) environment of space. This was particularly used in training astronauts in activities in zero-g work, especiallyspacewalks.[citation needed]
The Orbital Workshop was built into the propellant tanks of a Saturn V third stage, being fully refitted on the ground. It was renamedSkylab in February 1970. Two were built – one for flight and the other for testing and mission simulation in the Neutral Buoyancy Facility. Leland F Belew served for eight years as the overall Skylab program director.[citation needed]
Another AAP project that survived was a solar observatory, originally intended to be a deployable attachment to the Apollo spacecraft. Called theApollo Telescope Mount (ATM), the project was assigned to MSFC in 1966. As the Orbital Workshop matured into the Skylab, the ATM was added as an appendage, but the two activities were kept as independent development projects.Rein Ise was the ATM project manager at MSFC. The ATM included eight major instruments for observations of the Sun at wavelengths from extremeultraviolet toinfrared. The data was mainly collected on special photographic film; during the Skylab missions, the film had to be changed out by astronauts inspacewalks.[17]
On May 14, 1973, the 77-ton (70,000-kg) Skylab was launched into a 235-nautical-mile (435-km) orbit by the last flown Saturn V. Saturn IB vehicles with their CSMs were used to launch three-person crews to dock with Skylab. Severe damage was sustained during Skylab launch and deployment, resulting in the loss of the station's micrometeoroid shield/sun shade and one of its main solar panels. This loss was partially corrected by the first crew, launched May 25; they stayed in orbit with Skylab for 28 days. Two additional missions followed with the launch dates of July 28 and November 16, with mission durations of 59 and 84 days, respectively. Skylab, including the ATM, logged about 2,000 hours on some 300 scientific and medical experiments. The last Skylab crew returned to the Earth on February 8, 1974.[18]
TheApollo–Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) was the last flight of a Saturn IB. On 15 July 1975, a three-person crew was launched on a six-day mission to dock with a SovietSoyuz spacecraft. The primary purpose was to provide engineering experience for future joint space flights, but both spacecraft also had scientific experiments. This was the last crewed U.S. space mission until April 1981.
TheHigh Energy Astronomy Observatory (HEAO) Program involved three missions of large spacecraft inlow Earth orbit. Each spacecraft was about 18 ft (5.5 m) in length, massed between 6,000 and 7,000 lb (2,700 and 3,200 kg), and carried some 3,000 lb (1,400 kg) of experiments forX-ray andgamma-ray astronomy andcosmic-ray investigations. The project provided insights into celestial objects by studying their high-energy radiation from space. Scientists from across the US served asprincipal investigators.[citation needed]
The HEAO spacecraft concept originated in the late 1960s, but funding did not become available for some time. UsingAtlas-Centaur launch vehicles, three highly successful missions were flown: HEAO 1 in August 1977, HEAO 2 (also called the Einstein Observatory) in November 1978, and HEAO 3 in September 1979. Fred A. Speer was the HEAO project manager for MSFC.[19]
Other MSFC-managed space science projects in the 1970s included theLaser Geodynamics Satellite (LAGEOS) andGravity Probe A. In LAGEOS, laser beams from 35 ground stations are reflected by 422 prismatic mirrors on the satellite to track movements in the Earth's crust. The measurement accuracy is a few centimeters and it tracks the movement oftectonic plates with comparable accuracy. Conceived and built at MSFC, the LAGEOS was launched by aDelta rocket in May 1976.[20]
Gravity Probe A, also called the Redshift Experiment, used an extremely precisehydrogen maser clock to confirm part of Einstein'sgeneral theory of relativity. The probe was launched in June 1976, by aScout rocket, and remained in space for near two hours, as intended.[21]
On January 5, 1972, PresidentRichard M. Nixon announced plans to develop theSpace Shuttle, a reusable Space Transportation System (STS) for routine access to space. The Shuttle was composed of theOrbiter Vehicle (OV) containing the crew and payload, twoSolid Rocket Boosters (SRBs), and theExternal Tank (ET) that carried liquid fuel for the OV's main engines. MSFC was responsible for the SRBs, the OV's three main engines, and the ET. MSFC was also responsible for the integration ofSpacelab, a versatile laboratory developed by theEuropean Space Agency and carried in the Shuttle's cargo bay on some flights.[citation needed][22]
The first test firing of an OV main engine was in 1975. Two years later, the first firing of a SRB took place and tests on the ET began at MSFC. The firstEnterprise OV flight, attached to aShuttle Carrier Aircraft (SCA), was in February 1977; this was followed by free landings in August and October. In March 1978, theEnterprise OV was flown atop a SCA to MSFC. Mated to an ET, the partial Space Shuttle was hoisted onto the modifiedSaturn V Dynamic Test Stand where it was subjected to a full range of vibrations comparable to those in a launch. The first spaceworthy Space Shuttle,Columbia, was completed and placed at the KSC for checking and launch preparation. On April 12, 1981, theColumbia made the first orbital test flight.[citation needed]
TheSpace Shuttle was the most complex spacecraft ever built. From the start of the Shuttle program in 1972, the management and development of Space Shuttle propulsion was a major activity at MSFC.Alex A. McCool, Jr. was the first manager of MSFC's Space Shuttle Projects Office.[citation needed]
Throughout 1980, engineers at MSFC participated in tests related to plans to launch the first Space Shuttle. During these early tests and prior to each later Shuttle launch, personnel in the Huntsville Operations Support Center monitored consoles to evaluate and help solve any problems at the Florida launch that might involve Shuttle propulsion.[citation needed]
On April 12, 1981,Columbia made the first orbital test flight with a crew of two astronauts. This was designatedSTS-1 (Space Transportation System-1) and verified the combined performance of the entire system. STS-1 was followed bySTS-2 on November 12, demonstrating safe re-launch ofColumbia. During 1982,STS-3 andSTS-4 were completed.STS-5, launched November 11, was the first operational mission; carrying four astronauts, two commercial satellite were deployed. In all three of these flights, on-board experiments were carried and conducted on pallets in the Shuttle's cargo bay.[citation needed]
Space ShuttleChallenger was launched on missionSTS-51-L on 28 January 1986, resulting in theSpace ShuttleChallenger disaster one minute and thirteen seconds into the flight. Subsequent analysis of the high-speed tracking films and telemetry signals showed that a leak occurred in a joint on one of thesolid rocket boosters (SRBs). The escaping flame impinged on the surface of theexternal tank (ET), resulting in the destruction of the vehicle and loss of the crew. The basic cause of the disaster was determined to be anO-ring failure in the right SRB; cold weather was a contributing factor. A redesign and extensive testing of the SRBs was conducted. There were no Space Shuttle missions in the remainder of 1986 or in 1987. Flights resumed in September 1988 withSTS-26.[citation needed]
The Space Shuttles carried a wide variety of payloads, from scientific research equipment to highly classified military satellites. The flights were assigned a Space Transportation System (STS) number, in general sequenced by the planned launch date. Thelist of space shuttle missions shows all flights, their missions, and other information.[citation needed]
MSFC managed the adaptation of theInertial Upper Stage. This solid rocket was first flown in May 1989, propelling theMagellan planetary spacecraft from OrbiterAtlantis on a 15-month loop around the Sun and eventually into orbit around Venus for four years of radar surface-mapping.[citation needed]
Many Shuttle flights carried equipment for performing on-board research. Such equipment was accommodated in two forms: on pallets or other arrangements in the Shuttle's cargo bay (most often in addition to hardware for the primary mission). The integration of these experimental payloads was the responsibility of MSFC.[citation needed]
Pallet experiments were of a variety of types and complexity, including fluid physics, materials science, biotechnology, combustion science, and commercial space processing. For some missions, an aluminum bridge fitting across the cargo bay was used. This could carry 12 standard canisters holding isolated experiments, particularly those under theGetaway Special (GAS) program. GAS flights were made available at low cost to colleges, universities, US companies, individuals, foreign governments, and others.[citation needed]
On some flights, a variety of pallet experiments constituted the full payload, with examples includingAstronomy Laboratory-1 (ASTRO-1) andAtmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science (ATLAS 1).[citation needed]
In addition to the pallet experiments flown on the Space Shuttle, many other experiments were performed onboardSpacelab. This was a reusable laboratory consisting of multiple components, including a pressurized module, an unpressurized carrier, and other related hardware. Under a program overseen by MSFC, ten Europeans nations jointly designed, built, and financed the first Spacelab through the European Space Research Organisation (ESRO. In addition, Japan funded a Spacelab for STS-47, a dedicated mission.[23]
Over a 15-year period, Spacelab components flew on 22 shuttle missions, the last in April 1998. Examples of Spacelab missions follow:[citation needed]
In early 1990, MSFC's Spacelab Mission Operations Control Center was formed to control all Spacelab missions, replacing the Payload Operations Control Center formerly situated at the JSC from which previous Spacelab missions were operated.[citation needed]
NASA began planning to build a space station in 1984, namedFreedom in 1988. By the early 1990s, planning for four different stations were underway: the AmericanFreedom, the Soviet/RussianMir-2, the EuropeanColumbus, and the JapaneseKibō. In November 1993, plans forFreedom,Mir-2, and the European and Japanese modules were incorporated into a singleInternational Space Station (ISS).[citation needed] The ISS is composed of modules assembled in orbit, starting with the Russian moduleZarya in November 1998. This was followed in December by the first U.S. module,Unity also called Node 1, built by Boeing in facilities at MSFC.[24]
ISS assembly continued throughout the next decade, with continuously occupancy since February 7, 2001. Since 1998, 18 major U.S. components on the ISS have been assembled in space. In October 2007,Harmony or Node 2, was attached toDestiny; also managed by MSFC, this gave connection hubs for European and Japanese modules as well as additional living space, allowing the ISS crew to increase to six. The 18th and final major U.S. and Boeing-built element, the Starboard 6 Truss Segment, was delivered to the ISS in February 2009. With this, the full set of solar arrays could be activated, increasing the power available for science projects to 30 kW. That marked the completion of theUnited States Orbital Segment (USOS) of the station.[citation needed] On 5 March 2010, Boeing officially turned over the USOS to NASA.[25]
In 1962, the firstOrbiting Solar Observatory was launched, followed by theOrbiting Astronomical Observatory (OAO) that carried out ultraviolet observations of stars between 1968 and 1972. These showed the value of space-based astronomy, and led to the planning of the Large Space Telescope (LST) that would be launched and maintained from the forthcoming space shuttle. Budget limitations almost killed the LST, but the astronomy community – especiallyLyman Spitzer – and the National Science Foundation pressed for a major program in this area. Congress finally funded LST in 1978, with an intended launch date of 1983.[citation needed]
MSFC was given responsibility for the design, development, and construction of the telescope, whileGoddard Space Flight Center (GFC) was to develop the scientific instruments and ground-control center. The project scientist was C. Robert O’Dell, then chairman of the Astronomy Department at theUniversity of Chicago. The telescope assembly was designed as aCassegrain reflector with hyperbolic mirror polished to bediffraction limited; the primary mirror had a diameter of 2.4 m (94 in). The mirrors were developed by the optics firm Perkin-Elmer. MSFC could not test the performance of the mirror assembly until the telescope was launched and placed in service.[26]
The LST was named theHubble Space Telescope in 1983, the original launch date. There were many problems, delays, and cost increases in the program, and theChallenger disaster delayed the availability of the launch vehicle. TheHubble Space Telescope was launched in April 1990, but gave flawed images due to a flawed primary mirror that hadspherical aberration. The defect was found when the telescope was in orbit. Fortunately, the Hubble telescope had been designed to allow in-space maintenance, and in December 1993, mission STS-61 carried astronauts to the Hubble to make corrections and change some components. A second repair mission, STS-82, was made in February 1997, and a third, STS-103, in December 1999. Another servicing mission (STS-109) was flown on 1 March 2002. For these repair missions, the astronauts practiced the work in MSFC's Neutral Buoyancy Facility, simulating the weightless environment of space.[citation needed]
Based on the success of earlier maintenance missions, NASA decided to have a fifth service mission to Hubble; this was STS-125 flown on May 11, 2009. The maintenance and addition of equipment resulted in Hubble performance considerably better than planned at its origin. It is now expected that the Hubble will remain operational until its successor, theJames Webb Space Telescope (JWST), is available in 2018.[needs update][27][28]
Even before HEAO-2 (theEinstein Observatory) was launched in 1978, MSFC began preliminary studies for a larger X-ray telescope. To support this effort, in 1976 an X-Ray Test Facility, the only one of its size, was constructed at MSFC for verification testing and calibration of X-ray mirrors, telescope systems, and instruments. With the success of HEAO-2, MSFC was given responsibility for the design, development, and construction of what was then known as the Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility (AXAF). TheSmithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO) partners with MSFC, providing the science and operational management.[29]
Work on the AXAF continued through the 1980s. A major review was held in 1992, resulting in many changes; four of the twelve planned mirrors were eliminated, as were two of the six scientific instruments. The planned circular orbit was changed to an elliptical one, reaching one-third of the way to the Moon at its farthest point; this eliminated the possibility of improvement or repair using the Space Shuttle, but it placed the spacecraft above the Earth's radiation belts for most of its orbit.[citation needed]
AXAF was renamedChandra X-ray Observatory in 1998. It was launched July 23, 1999, by the ShuttleColumbia (STS-93). AnInertial Upper Stage booster adapted by MSFC was used to transportChandra to its high orbit Weighing about 22,700 kg (50,000 lb), this was the heaviest payload ever launched by a Shuttle. Operationally managed by the SAO, ‘’Chandra’’ has been returning excellent data since being activated. It initially had an expected life of five years, but this has now been extended to 15 years or longer.[30]
TheChandra X-ray Observatory, originating at MSFC, was launched on July 3, 1999, and is operated by theSmithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. With anangular resolution of 0.5arcsecond (2.4 μrad), it has a thousand times better resolution than the first orbiting X-ray telescopes. Its highlyelliptical orbit allows continuous observations up to 85 percent of its 65-hourorbital period. With its ability to make X-ray images of star clusters, supernova remnants, galactic eruptions, and collisions between clusters of galaxies - in its first decade of operation it has transformed astronomer's view of the high-energy universe.[31]
TheCompton Gamma Ray Observatory (CGRO) was another of NASA'sGreat Observatories. The CGRO was launched April 5, 1991, on Shuttle flight STS-37. At 37,000 lb (17,000 kg), it was the heaviest astrophysical payload ever flown at that time. CGRO was 14 years in development by NASA; TRW was the builder. Gamma radiation is the highest energy-level of electromagnetic radiation, having energies above 100keV and frequencies above 10exahertz (1019 Hz). Gamma radiation is produced bysub-atomic particle interactions, including those in some astrophysical processes. The continuous flow of cosmic rays bombarding space objects, such as the Moon, generate this radiation. Gamma rays also result in bursts from nuclear reactions. The CGRO was designed to image continuous radiation and to detect bursts.[citation needed]
MSFC was responsible for the Burst and Transient Source Experiment, (BATSE). This triggered on sudden changes in gamma count-rates lasting 0.1 to 100 s; it was also capable of detecting less impulsive sources by measuring their modulation using the Earthoccultation technique. In nine years of operation, BATSE triggered about 8000 events, of which some 2700 were strong bursts that were analyzed to have come from distant galaxies.[citation needed]
Unlike the Hubble Space Telescope, the CGRO was not designed for on-orbit repair and refurbishment. Thus, after one of its gyroscopes failed, NASA decided that a controlled crash was preferable to letting the craft come down on its own at random. On June 4, 2000, it was intentionally de-orbited, with the debris that did not burn up falling harmlessly into the Pacific Ocean. At MSFC,Gerald J. Fishman[when?] is the principal investigator of a project to continue examination of data from BATSE and other gamma-ray projects. The 2011Shaw Prize was shared by Fishman and ItalianEnrico Costa for their gamma-ray research.[32]
MSFC is NASA's designated developer and integrator of launch systems. The state-of-the-art Propulsion Research Laboratory serves as a leading national resource for advanced space propulsion research. Marshall has the engineering capabilities to take space vehicles from initial concept to sustained service. For manufacturing, the world's largest-known welding machine of its type was installed at MSFC in 2008; it is capable of building major, defect-free components for human-rated space vehicles.[citation needed]
In early March 2011, NASA Headquarters announced that MSFC will lead the efforts on a new heavy-lift rocket that, like the Saturn V of the lunar exploration program of the late 1960s, will carry large,human-rated payloads beyond low-Earth orbit. MSFC has the program office for theSpace Launch System.[33]
The initial plans for the Space Station envisaged a small, low-costCrew Return Vehicle (CRV) that would provide emergency evacuation capability. The 1986Challenger disaster led planners to consider a more capable spacecraft. TheOrbital Space Plane (OSP) development got underway in 2001, with an early version then expected to enter service by 2010. In 2004, the knowledge gained on the OSP was transferred toJohnson Space Center (JSC) for use in the development of theCrew Exploration Vehicle of theConstellation program. No operational OSP was ever built.[34]
MSFC had responsibility for the Space Shuttle's rocket propulsion elements, including the External Tank. On February 1, 2003, theSpace ShuttleColumbia disaster was caused by a piece of insulation that broke off theexternal tank during launch and damaged thethermal protection on the Orbiter's left wing.[citation needed]
MSFC was responsible for the external tank, but few or no changes to the tank were made; rather, NASA decided that it was inevitable that some insulation might be lost during launch and thus required that an inspection of the orbiter's critical elements be made prior to reentry on future flights.[citation needed]
NASA retired the Space Shuttle in 2011, which left the US dependent upon the RussianSoyuz spacecraft for crewed space missions for the next nine years until Demo-2 in 2020.[35][36]
Between 2004 and early 2010, theConstellation Program was a major NASA activity. MSFC was responsible for the propulsion of the proposedAres I andAres V heavy-lift vehicles.[37]
Starting in 2006, the MSFC Exploration Launch Projects Office began work on the Ares projects. On October 28, 2009, an Ares I-X test rocket lifted off from the newly modifiedLaunch Complex 39B atKennedy Space Center (KSC) for a two-minute powered flight; then continued for four additional minutes traveling 150 mi (240 km) down range.[citation needed]
TheFermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope, initially called the Gamma-Ray Large Area Space Telescope (GLAST), is an international, multi-agency space observatory used to study the cosmos. It was launched June 11, 2008, has a design life of 5 years and a goal of 10 years. The primary instrument is the Large Area Telescope (LAT), which is sensitive in the photon energy range of 0.1 to greater than 300 GeV and can view about 20% of the sky at any given moment.[38] The LAT is complemented by the GLAST Burst Monitor (GBM) which can detect burst of X-rays and gamma rays in the 8-keV to 3-MeV energy range, overlapping with the LAT. The GBM is a collaborative effort between the U.S.National Space Science and Technology Center and theMax Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics in Germany. MSFC manages the GBM, and Charles A. Meegan[needs update] of MSFC is the Principal Investigator. Many new discoveries have been made in the initial period of operation. For example, on May 10, 2009, a burst was detected that, by its propagation characteristics, is believed to negate some approaches to a new theory of gravity.[39]
The Burst and Transient Source Experiment (BATSE), withGerald J. Fishman of MSFC serving as Principal Investigator, is an ongoing examination of the many years of data from gamma-ray bursts, pulsars, and other transient gamma-ray phenomena.[40] The 2011Shaw Prize, often called "Asia's Nobel Prize," was shared by Fishman and Italian astronomerEnrico Costa for their gamma-ray research.[41]
Marshall Space Flight Center has capabilities and projects supporting NASA's mission in three key areas: lifting from Earth (Space Vehicles), living and working in space (International Space Station), and understanding our world and beyond (Advanced Scientific Research).[42]
TheInternational Space Station is a partnership of the United States, Russian, European, Japanese, and Canadian Space Agencies. The station has continuously had human occupants since November 2, 2000. Orbiting 16 times daily at an average altitude of about 250 mi (400 km), it passes over some 90 percent of the world's surface. It has a mass over 932,000 lb (423,000 kg), and a crew of six conducts research and prepares the way for future explorations.[citation needed]
It is planned that the International Space Station will be operated at least through the end of 2030. Following the retirement of the Space Shuttle Program in 2011, crewed NASA missions to the ISS were supported by Russian Soyuz spacecraft until 2020 when NASA’s Commercial Crew Program became operational with regular launches of SpaceX Crew Dragon spacecraft atop SpaceX Falcon 9 reusable rocketshttps://spacenews.com/nasa-and-spacex-finalize-extension-of-commercial-crew-contract/. Boeing’s CST-100 Starliner Commercial Crew spacecraft will join upon completion of NASA’s mandated test protocolshttps://www.space.com/41360-how-boeing-starliner-commercial-spacecraft-works.html.
MSFC has supported activities in the U.S. Laboratory (Destiny) and elsewhere on the International Space Station through thePayload Operations Center (POC). The research activities include experiments on topics ranging from human physiology to physical science. Operating around the clock, scientists, engineers, and flight controllers in the POC link Earth-bound researchers throughout the world with their experiments and astronauts aboard the ISS. As of March 2011[update], this has included the coordination of more than 1,100 experiments conducted by 41 space-station crew members involved in over 6,000 hours of science research.[citation needed]
Hundreds of experiments have been conducted aboard theInternational Space Station. The deep-space images from theHubble Space Telescope and theChandra X-ray Observatory are made possible in part by the people and facilities at Marshall. The MSFC was not only responsible for the design, development, and construction of these telescopes, but it is also now home to the only facility in the world for testing large telescope mirrors in a space-simulated environment. Work is well underway on theJames Webb Space Telescope (JWST), which will have the largest primary mirror ever assembled in space. In the future, the facility will likely be used for another successor, theAdvanced Technology Large-Aperture Space Telescope (AT-LAST).[citation needed]
TheNational Space Science and Technology Center (NSSTC) is a joint research venture between NASA and the seven research universities of the State of Alabama. The primary purpose of NSSTC is to foster collaboration in research between government, academia, and industry. It consists of seven research centers: Advanced Optics, Biotechnology, Global Hydrology & Climate, Information Technology, Material Science, Propulsion, and Space Science. Each center is managed by either MSFC, the host NASA facility, or theUniversity of Alabama in Huntsville, the host university.[citation needed]
Teams at MSFC manage NASA's programs for exploring the Sun, the Moon, the planets, and other bodies throughout theSolar System. These have includedGravity Probe B, an experiment to test two predictions of Einstein's general theory of relativity, andSolar-B, an international mission to study the solar magnetic field and origins of the solar wind, a phenomenon that affects radio transmission on the Earth. The MSFC Lunar Precursor and Robotic Program Office manages projects and directs studies on lunar robotic activities across NASA.[citation needed]
MSFC also develops systems for monitoring the Earth's climate and weather patterns. At the Global Hydrology and Climate Center (GHCC), researchers combine data from Earth systems with satellite data to monitor biodiversity conservation andclimate change, providing information that improves agriculture, urban planning, and water-resource management.[43]
On November 19, 2010, MSFC entered the new field of microsatellites with the successful launch ofFASTSAT (Fast, Affordable, Science and Technology Satellite). Part of a joint DoD/NASA payload, it was launched by aMinotaur IV rocket from theKodiak Launch Complex onKodiak Island, Alaska. FASTSAT is a platform carrying multiple small payloads to low-Earth orbit, creating opportunities to conduct low-cost scientific and technology research on an autonomous satellite in space. FASTSAT, weighing just under 400 lb (180 kg), serves as a full scientific laboratory containing all the resources needed to carry out scientific and technology research operations. It was developed at the MSFC in partnership with the Von Braun Center for Science & Innovation and Dynetics, Inc., both of Huntsville, Alabama. Mark Boudreaux is the project manager for MSFC.[citation needed]
There are six experiments on the FASTSAT bus, includingNanoSail-D2, which is itself a nanosatellite – the first satellite launched from another satellite. It was deployed satisfactorily on January 21, 2011.[44]
The following persons had served as the Marshall Space Flight Center director:[45][46]
| No. | Image | Director | Start | End | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 |  | Wernher von Braun | July 1, 1960 | January 27, 1970 | [47] |
| 2 |  | Eberhard F. M. Rees | March 1, 1970 | January 19, 1973 | [48] |
| 3 |  | Rocco A. Petrone | January 26, 1973 | March 15, 1974 | [49] |
| 4 |  | William R. Lucas | June 15, 1974 | July 3, 1986 | [50] |
| 5 |  | James R. Thompson Jr. | September 29, 1986 | July 6, 1989 | [51] |
| 6 |  | Thomas J. Lee | July 6, 1989 | January 6, 1994 | [52] |
| 7 |  | Gene Porter Bridwell | January 6, 1994 | February 3, 1996 | [53] |
| 8 |  | J. Wayne Littles | February 3, 1996 | January 1998 | [54] |
| Acting |  | Carolyn S. Griner | January 1998 | September 1998 | |
| 9 |  | Arthur G. Stephenson | September 1998 | May, 2003 | [55] |
| 10 | .jpg) | David A. King | June 15, 2003 | March 26, 2009 | [56] |
| Acting |  | Robert M. Lightfoot, Jr. | March 26, 2009 | July 2009 | |
| 11 | August 2009 | March 4, 2012 | [57] | ||
| Acting |  | Arthur E. Goldman | March 5, 2012 | August 3, 2012 | [58] |
| Acting |  | Robin Henderson | August 4, 2012 | September 24, 2012 | [59][60] |
| 12 |  | Patrick Scheuermann | September 25, 2012 | November 13, 2015 | [61] |
| Acting |  | Todd May | November 14, 2015 | January 31, 2016 | |
| 13 | February 1, 2016 | July 27, 2018 | [62] | ||
| Acting |  | Jody Singer | July 27, 2018 | September 12, 2018 | |
| 14 | September 13, 2018 | July 29, 2023 | [63] | ||
| Acting | .jpg) | Joseph Pelfrey | July 29, 2023 | February 5, 2024 | |
| 15 | February 5, 2024 | present | [64] |
| International | |
|---|---|
| National | |
| Other | |
