This article is about the Māori people of New Zealand. For the Māori people of the Cook Islands, seeCook Islanders. For the Maohi people of the Society Islands, seeTahitians.
Māori (Māori:[ˈmaːɔɾi]ⓘ)[i] are theindigenousPolynesian people of mainlandNew Zealand. Māori originated with settlers from EastPolynesia, who arrived in New Zealand in several waves ofcanoe voyages between roughly 1320 and 1350.[13] Over several centuries in isolation, these settlers developeda distinct culture, whose language, mythology, crafts, and performing arts evolved independently from those of other eastern Polynesian cultures. Some early Māori moved to theChatham Islands, where their descendants became New Zealand's other indigenous Polynesian ethnic group, theMoriori.[14]
Early contact between Māori and Europeans, starting in the 18th century, ranged from beneficial trade to lethal violence; Māori actively adopted many technologies from the newcomers. With the signing of theTreaty of Waitangi/Te Tiriti o Waitangi in 1840, the two cultures coexisted for a generation. Rising tensions over disputed land sales led to conflict in the 1860s, and subsequent land confiscations, which Māori resisted fiercely. After the Treaty was declared a legal nullity in 1877, Māori wereforced to assimilate into many aspects ofWestern culture. Social upheaval and epidemics of introduced disease took a devastating toll on the Māori population, which fell dramatically, but began to recover by the beginning of the 20th century. The March 2023 New Zealand census gives the number of people of Māori descent as 978,246 (19.6% of the total population), an increase of 12.5% since 2018.[15][16]
Efforts have been made, centring on theTreaty of Waitangi, to increase the standing of Māori in wider New Zealand society and achievesocial justice. Traditional Māori culture has enjoyed a significant revival, which was further bolstered by aMāori protest movement that emerged in the 1960s. However, disproportionate numbers of Māori face significant economic and social obstacles, and generally have lower life expectancies and incomes than other New Zealand ethnic groups. They suffer higher levels of crime, health problems, imprisonment, poverty and educational under-achievement. A number of socio-economic initiatives have been instigated with the aim of "closing the gaps" between Māori and other New Zealanders. Political and economic redress for historical grievances is also ongoing (seeTreaty of Waitangi claims and settlements).
Māori are the second-largest ethnic group in New Zealand, after European New Zealanders (commonly known by the Māori namePākehā). In addition,more than 170,000 Māori live in Australia. TheMāori language is spoken to some extent by about a fifth of all Māori, representing three per cent of the total population. Māori are active in all spheres of New Zealand culture and society, with independent representation in areas such as media, politics, and sport.
In theMāori language, the wordmāori means "normal", "natural", or "ordinary". In legends and oral traditions, the word distinguished ordinary mortal human beings—tāngata māori—fromdeities and spirits (wairua).[17][ii] Likewise,wai māori denotes "fresh water", as opposed tosalt water. There arecognate words in mostPolynesian languages,[18] all deriving from Proto-Polynesian*ma(a)qoli, which has the reconstructed meaning "true, real, genuine".[19][20]
Early visitors from Europe to New Zealand generally referred to the indigenous inhabitants as "New Zealanders" or as "natives".[21] The Māori used the termMāori to describe themselves in a pan-tribal sense.[iii] Māori people often use the termtangata whenua (literal meaning, "people of the land") to identify in a way that expresses their relationship with a particular area of land; a tribe may be thetangata whenua in one area, but not in another.[22] The term can also refer to the Māori people as a whole in relation to New Zealand (Aotearoa) as a whole.
The official definition of Māori for electoral purposes has changed over time. Before 1974, the government required documented ancestry to determine the status of "a Māori person" and only those with at least 50% Māori ancestry were allowed to choose which seats they wished to vote in. The Māori Affairs Amendment Act 1974 changed this, allowing individuals to self-identify as to their cultural identity.
Until 1986, the census required at least 50 per cent Māori ancestry to claim Māori affiliation. Currently, in most contexts, authorities require some documentation of ancestry or continuing cultural connection (such as acceptance by others as being of the people); however, there is no minimum ancestry requirement.[23][iv]
The date of first arrival and settlement is a matter of debate.[28] There may have been some exploration and settlement before the eruption ofMount Tarawera (c. 1315), based on finds of bones from Polynesian rats and rat-gnawed shells,[29] and evidence of widespread forest fires in the decade or so prior.[30][31] One 2022 study using advancedradiocarbon technology suggests that "early Māori settlement happened in the North Island between AD 1250 and AD 1275".[32][33] However, a synthesis of archaeological and genetic evidence concludes that, whether or not some settlers arrived before the Tarawera eruption, the main settlement period was in the decades after it, somewhere between 1320 and 1350.[25] This broadly aligns with analyses from Māori oral traditions, which describe the arrival of ancestors ina number of large ocean-going canoes (waka) as a planned mass migrationc. 1350.[34][35]
They had a profound impact on their environment from their first settlement in New Zealand and voyages further south, with definitive archaeological evidence of brief settlement as far south asEnderby Island.[36] Some have speculated that Māori explorers may have been the first humans to discoverAntarctica:[37][38][39][40] According to a nineteenth century translation byStephenson Percy Smith, part of the Rarotongan oral history describesUi-te-Rangiora, around the year 650, leading a fleet ofWaka Tīwai south until they reached,"a place of bitter cold where rock-like structures rose from a solid sea".[41] Based on interpretations by Wehi and her colleagues, subsequent commentators speculated that these brief descriptions might match theRoss Ice Shelf, or possibly theAntarctic mainland, oricebergs surrounded bysea ice found in theSouthern Ocean.[42][43][44] Other scholars are far more sceptical, raising serious problems with Smith's translations, and noting the seafaring technologies required for Antarctic voyaging.[45] Regardless of these debates, the Māori were sophisticated seafarers and New Zealand has a strong association with Antarctica, and a wish by some for Māori values to be integral tohuman presence there.[46]
Early Archaic period artefacts from theWairau Bar archaeological site, on display at theCanterbury Museum in Christchurch
The earliest period of Māori settlement, known as the "Archaic", "Moahunter" or "Colonisation" period, dates from the time of arrival toc. 1500. The early Māori diet included an abundance ofmoa and other large birds and fur seals that had never been hunted before. This Archaic period is known for its distinctive "reel necklaces",[47] and also remarkable for the lack of weapons and fortifications typical of the later "Classic" Māori.[48] The best-known and most extensively studied Archaic site, atWairau Bar in the South Island,[49] shows evidence of occupation from early-13th century to the early-15th century.[50] It is the only known New Zealand archaeological site containing the bones of people who were born elsewhere.[50]
Model of apā (hillfort) built on a headland.Pā proliferated as competition and warfare increased among a growing population.
Factors that operated in the transition to the Classic period (the culture at the time of European contact) include a significantlycooler period from 1500,[51] and the extinction of themoa and of other food species.[52][53][54][55][56]
The Classic period is characterised by finely madepounamu (greenstone) weapons and ornaments, elaborately carvedwar canoes andwharenui (meeting houses).[57] Māori lived in autonomous settlements in extendedhapū groups descended from commoniwi ancestors. The settlements had farmed areas and food sources for hunting, fishing and gathering. Fortifiedpā were built at strategic locations due to occasional warfare over wrongdoings or resources; this practice varied over different locations throughout New Zealand, with more populations in the far North.[28][58][59] There is a stereotype that Māori were 'natural warriors'; however, warfare and associated practices likecannibalism were not a dominant part of Māori culture.[60][61][62]
Around the year 1500, a group of Māori migrated east to theChatham Islands and developed into a people known as theMoriori,[63] withpacifism a key part of their culture.[64]
A drawing fromAbel Tasman'stravel journal of the first encounter between Europeans and Māori, in 1642
The first European explorers of New Zealand wereAbel Tasman, who arrived in 1642, CaptainJames Cook, in 1769, andMarion du Fresne in 1772. Initial contact between Māori and Europeans proved problematic and sometimes fatal, with Tasman having four of his men killed and probably killing at least one Māori, without ever landing.[65] Cook's men shot at least eight Māori within three days of his first landing,[66][67] although he later had good relations with Māori. Three years later, after a promising start, du Fresne and 26 men of his crew were killed. From the 1780s, Māori also increasingly encountered European and Americansealers,whalers and Christianmissionaries. Relations were mostly peaceful, although marred by several further violent incidents, the worst of which was theBoyd massacre in 1807 and subsequent revenge attacks.[68]
European settlement in New Zealand began in the early 19th century, leading to an extensive sharing of culture and ideas. Many Māori valued Europeans, whom they called "Pākehā", as a means to acquire Western knowledge and technology. Māori quickly adopted writing as a means of sharing ideas, and many of their oral stories and poems were converted to the written form.[69] The introduction of thepotato revolutionised agriculture, and the acquisition ofmuskets[70] by Māoriiwi led to a period of particularly bloodyintertribal warfare known as theMusket Wars, in which many groups were decimated and others driven from their traditional territory.[71] The pacifistMoriori in the Chatham Islands similarly suffered massacre and subjugation in an invasion by some Taranakiiwi.[72] At the same time, the Māori suffered high mortality rates from Eurasian infectious diseases, such asinfluenza,smallpox andmeasles, which killed an estimated 10 to 50 per cent of Māori.[73][74]
Depiction of the signing of theTreaty of Waitangi in 1840, bringing New Zealand and the Māori into the British Empire
By 1839, estimates placed the number of Europeans living in New Zealand as high as 2,000,[75]and theBritish Crown acceded to repeated requests from missionaries and some Māori chiefs (rangatira) to intervene. The British government sent Royal Navy CaptainWilliam Hobson to negotiate a treaty between the British Crown and the Māori, which became known as theTreaty of Waitangi. Starting from February 1840, this treaty was signed by the Crown and 500 Māori chiefs from across New Zealand.[76][77] The Treaty gave Māori the rights ofBritish subjects and guaranteed Māori property rights and tribal autonomy, in return for accepting Britishsovereignty and the annexation of New Zealand as a colony in theBritish Empire.[78] However, disputes continue over aspects of the Treaty of Waitangi, including wording differences in the two versions (in English and Māori), as well as misunderstandings of different cultural concepts; notably, the Māori version did not cede sovereignty to the British Crown.[79] Inan 1877 court case the Treaty was declared a "simple nullity" on the grounds that the signatories had been "primitive barbarians".[80][81]
Nevertheless, relations between Māori and Pākehā (New Zealand Europeans) during the early colonial period were largely peaceful. Many Māori groups set up substantial businesses, supplying food and other products for domestic and overseas markets. When violence did break out, as in theWairau Affray,Flagstaff War,Hutt Valley Campaign andWanganui Campaign, it was generally limited and concluded with a peace treaty. However, by the 1860s rising settler numbers and tensions over disputed land purchases led to the laterNew Zealand wars, fought by the colonial government against numerous Māoriiwi using local and British Imperial troops, and some alliediwi. These conflicts resulted in the colonial governmentconfiscating tracts of Māori land as punishment for what were called "rebellions". Pākehā settlers would occupy the confiscated land.[82] Several minor conflicts arose after the wars, including the incident atParihaka in 1881 and theDog Tax War from 1897 to 1898. TheNative Land Court was established to transfer Māori land from communal ownership into individual title as a means to assimilation and to facilitate greater sales to European settlers.[83]
Members of the 28th (Māori) Battalion performing ahaka, Egypt (July 1941)
By the late 19th century, a widespread belief existed amongst bothPākehā and Māori that the Māori population would cease to exist as a separate race or culture, and become assimilated into the European population.[84] From the late 19th to the mid-20th century various laws, policies, and practices were instituted in New Zealand society with the effect of inducing Māori to conform to Pākehā norms; notable among these are theTohunga Suppression Act 1907 and the suppression of the Māori language by schools,[85] often enforced with corporal punishment.[86] In the 1896 census, New Zealand had a Māori population of 42,113, by which time Europeans numbered more than 700,000.[87]
The rapid decline did not continue and the Māori population continued to recover in the 20th century. Influential Māori politicians such asJames Carroll,Āpirana Ngata,Te Rangi Hīroa andMāui Pōmare aimed to revitalise the Māori people after the devastation of the previous century. They believed the future path called for a degree ofassimilation,[88] with Māori adopting European practices such asWestern medicine, while also retaining traditional cultural practices. Māori also fought during both World Wars in specialised battalions (theMāori Pioneer Battalion in WWI and the28th (Māori) Battalion in WWII). Māori were also badly hit by the1918 influenza epidemic, with death rates for Māori being five to seven times higher than for Pākehā.[89][90]
Whina Cooper leading the Māori Land March in 1975, seeking redress for historical grievances
Since the 1960s, Māoridom has undergone acultural revival[91] concurrent with activism for social justice and aprotest movement.[92]Kōhanga reo (Māori language pre-schools) were established in 1982 to promote Māori language use and halt the decline in its use.[93] Two Māori language television channels broadcast content in the Māori language,[94][95] while words such as "kia ora" have entered widespread use inNew Zealand English.[96]
Government recognition of the growing political power of Māori and political activism have led to limited redress for historic land confiscations. In 1975, the Crown set up theWaitangi Tribunal to investigate historical grievances,[97] and since the 1990s the New Zealand government has negotiated and finalisedtreaty settlements with manyiwi across New Zealand. By June 2008, the government had provided over NZ$900 million in settlements, much of it in the form of land deals.[98] There is a growing Māori leadership who are using these settlements as an investment platform for economic development.[99]
Despite a growing acceptance of Māori culture in wider New Zealand society, treaty settlements have generated significant controversy. Some Māori have argued that the settlements occur at a level of between one and two-and-a-half cents on the dollar of the value of the confiscated lands, and do not represent adequate redress. Conversely, some non-Māori denounce the settlements and socioeconomic initiatives as amounting to race-based preferential treatment.[100] Both of these sentiments were expressed during theNew Zealand foreshore and seabed controversy in 2004.[101][102]
Tāwhiao, the second Māori king, reigned from 1860–1894
TheMāori King movement, called theKīngitanga[v] in Māori, arose among some of the Māoriiwi in the central North Island in the 1850s, to establish a role similar in status to that of the monarch of the British colonists, as a way of halting the alienation of Māori land.[105] The Māori monarch operates in a non-constitutional capacity with no legal or judicial power within the New Zealand government. Reigning monarchs retain the position ofparamount chief of severaliwi[106] and wield some power over these, especially withinTainui.
Themovement arose among a group of central North Island iwi in the 1850s as a means of attaining Māori unity to halt the alienation of land at a time of rapid population growth by European colonists.[105] The movement sought to establish a monarch who could claim status similar to that ofQueen Victoria and thus allow Māori to deal withPākehā (Europeans) on equal footing. It took on the appearance of an alternative government with its own flag, newspaper, bank, councillors, magistrates and law enforcement. But it was viewed by the colonial government as a challenge to the supremacy of theBritish monarchy, leading in turn to the 1863invasion of Waikato, which was partly motivated by a drive to neutralise the Kīngitanga's power and influence. Following their defeat at Ōrākau in 1864, Kīngitanga forces withdrew into the Ngāti Maniapoto tribal region of the North Island that became known as theKing Country.[108][109][page needed] The Māori monarch's influence has not been as strong as it could be, partially due to the lack of affiliation to the Kīngitanga of key iwi, most notablyTūhoe,Ngāti Porou, and the largest iwi of all,Ngāpuhi.[110]
Māori in New Zealand in 2018Māori New Zealanders population pyramid in 2018
Under the Māori Affairs Amendment Act 1974, a Māori is defined as "a person of the Māori race of New Zealand; and includes any descendant of such a person".[111] The Māori population around the late 18th century was estimated by James Cook at 100,000. Historian Michael King suggests a slightly higher figure of 110,000 is more likely.[112] Their numbers declined during the 19th century, to as low as 42,000; the decline has been attributed to the impact of European colonisation, including new diseases.[113] Thereafter the population grew rapidly.
There were 887,493 people identifying as being part of the Māori ethnic group at the2023 New Zealand census, making up 17.8% of New Zealand's population.[114] This is an increase of 111,657 people (14.4%) since the2013 census, and an increase of 288,891 people (48.3%) since the2006 census. The large increase between the 2013 and 2018 census was mainly due toStatistics New Zealand starting to add ethnicity data from other sources (previous censuses, administrative data, and imputation) to the census data to reduce the number of non-responses.[115]
The median age of Māori was 26.8 years, compared with 38.1 years for New Zealand as a whole. 262,422 people (29.6%) were aged under 15 years, 223,860 (25.2%) were 15 to 29, 336,486 (37.9%) were 30 to 64, and 64,725 (7.3%) were 65 or older.
At the 2018 census, there were 383,019 males and 392,820 females, giving a sex ratio of 0.975 males per female.[116]
Of those identifying as Māori at the 2018 census, 352,755 people (45.5%) identified as of sole Māori ethnicity while 336,174 people (43.3%) identified as of both European and Māori ethnicity, due to the high rate of intermarriage between the two ethnicities.[117]
The largestiwi by population at the 2013 census wasNgāpuhi (125,601), followed byNgāti Porou (71,049),Ngāi Tahu (54,819) andWaikato (40,083). However, over 110,000 people of Māori descent could not identify theiriwi.[118]
Outside of New Zealand, a large Māori population exists in Australia. There were 170,057 Australians identifying as Māori at the2021 Australian census, with 65,031 living inQueensland, 39,714 living inNew South Wales and 31,044 living inWestern Australia.[119] Smaller communities also exist in the United Kingdom (approx. 8,000), the United States (up to 3,500) and Canada (approx. 2,805).[3][120][121]
Māori culture forms a distinctive part ofNew Zealand culture and, due to a large diaspora and the incorporation of Māori motifs intopopular culture, is found throughout the world.[122][123] Contemporary Māori culture comprises traditional as well as 20th-century influences.
Archaeological record indicates a gradual evolution of culture.[124] In the course of a few centuries, the growing population led to competition for resources and an increase in warfare and an increased frequency of fortifiedpā. Various systems also arose aimed to conserve resources; most of these, such astapu andrāhui, used religious or supernatural threats to discourage people from taking species at particular seasons or from specified areas.
Warfare between tribes was common, and Māori would sometimes eat their conquered enemies or enslave them.[125] Performing arts such as thehaka developed from their Polynesian roots, as did carving and weaving. Regional dialects arose, with differences in vocabulary and in the pronunciation of some words but the language retained enough similarities to otherEastern Polynesian languages forTupaia, theTahitian navigator onJames Cook's first voyage in the region to act as an interpreter between Māori and the crew of theEndeavour.
Many Māori people observe spiritual traditions such astapu andnoa. Certain objects, areas, or buildings aretapu (spiritually restricted), and must be madenoa (unrestricted) by ceremonial action.[130] It is common practice, for instance, to remove one's shoes before entering awharenui (meeting-house), a token of respect for the ancestors who are represented and spiritually present within thewharenui.[131] Another spiritual ritual ishurihanga takapau (purification), practised when fishing to ensure there is notapu on the fish.[132]
Cultural performance ofwaiata (song),haka (dance),tauparapara (chants) andmōteatea (poetry) are used by Māori to express and pass on knowledge and understanding about history, communities, and relationships.[133]Kapa haka is a Māori performance art[134] believed to have originated with the legendary figureTinirau. It was performed for tourists following European contact, starting in the 1880s; this sometimes involved adaptations to make it more familiar to European audiences.[135] It was used in the First World War to raise money for the Maori Soldiers' Fund encouraged byĀpirana Ngata.[135] Ahaka is often performed in apōwhiri (welcoming ceremony).[136]
Since 1972, there has been a regular nationalkapa haka competition, theTe Matatini National Festival, organised by the Aotearoa Traditional Māori Performing Arts Society. There arekapa haka groups in schools, tertiary institutions, and workplaces, and it is performed at tourist venues across the country.[137][138]
Whare tapere (entertainment houses) were a site of story-telling, dance, and puppetry in pre-European Māori culture.[139][140] Māori theatre and contemporary dance flourished in the 1970s and 1980s with groups such asTe Ohu Whakaari, Te Ika a Maui Players andTaki Rua. Contemporary Māori stage writers, actors and directors includeGeorge Henare,Riwia Brown,Hone Kouka,Nancy Brunning,Jim Moriarty,Briar Grace-Smith, and many others.[141] Contemporary performing arts include theatre companies Taki Rua,[142] Tawata Productions who run an annual playwriting festival for indigenous writers called Breaking Ground,[143][144] and dance companies,Atamira Dance Company and Okareka Dance Company.[145] InAuckland there is Te Pou, a kaupapa Māori performing arts venue that develops and partners with Māori theatre makers.[146]
Traditional Māori instruments aretaonga pūoro. They fulfilled various roles including storytelling, religious traditions and also daily functions such as the beginning of a new day.[147] Taonga pūoro fall into two areas, melodic instruments such as the flute and rhythmic instruments such aspoi "balls of dried flax on string that are swung and tapped".[148]
Like other cultures, oral folklore was used by Māori to preserve their stories and beliefs through many centuries. In the 19th century, European-style literacy was brought to the Māori, which led to Māori history documentation in books, novels and later television. Māori language use began to decline in the 20th century with English as the language through which Māori literature became widespread.
Notable Māori novelists includePatricia Grace,Witi Ihimaera andAlan Duff.Once Were Warriors, a 1994 film adapted from a 1990novel of the same name by Alan Duff, brought the plight of some urban Māori to a wide audience. It was the highest-grossing film in New Zealand until 2006,[149][150] and received international acclaim, winning several international film prizes.[151] While some Māori feared that viewers would consider the violent male characters an accurate portrayal of Māori men, most critics praised it as exposing the raw side ofdomestic violence.[152]
Māori participate fully inNew Zealand's sporting culture, and are well-represented in rugby union, rugby league and netball teams at all levels. As well as participation in national sports teams, there are Māorirugby union,rugby league andcricket representative teams that play in international competitions.
At the2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, 41 of the 199 competitors (20.5 per cent) were of Māori descent in theNew Zealand delegation, with the rugby sevens squads alone having 17 Māori competitors (out of 24). There were also three competitors of Māori descent in theAustralian delegation.[157]
Kī-o-rahi andTapawai are twoball sports of Māori origin. Kī-o-rahi received an unexpected boost whenMcDonald's chose it to represent New Zealand.[160]Waka ama (outrigger canoeing) has also experienced a resurgence of interest in New Zealand since the 1980s.[161]
Speakers of Māori according to the 2013 census[162]
Less than 5%
More than 5%
More than 10%
More than 20%
More than 30%
More than 40%
More than 50%
The Māori language, also known aste reo Māori (pronounced[ˈmaːoɾi,teˈɾeoˈmaːoɾi]) or simplyTe Reo ("the language"), has the status of an official language. Linguists classify it within the Eastern Polynesian languages as being closely related toCook Islands Māori,Tuamotuan andTahitian. Before European contact Māori did not have a written language and "important information such aswhakapapa was memorised and passed down verbally through the generations".[163] Māori were familiar with the concept of maps and when interacting with missionaries in 1815 could draw accurate maps of theirrohe (iwi boundaries), onto paper, that were the equal of European maps. Missionaries surmised that Māori had traditionally drawn maps on sand or other natural materials.[164]
From about 1890, Māorimembers of Parliament realised the importance of English literacy to Māori and insisted that all Māori children be taught in English.[citation needed] Missionaries, who still ran many Māori schools, had been teaching exclusively in Māori but the Māori MPs insisted this should stop. However attendance at school for many Māori was intermittent.In many areas of New Zealand, Māori lost its role as a living community language used by significant numbers of people in thepost-war years. In tandem with calls for sovereignty and for the righting of social injustices from the 1970s onwards, New Zealand schools now teach Māori culture and language as an option, and pre-schoolkohanga reo ("language-nests") have started, which teachtamariki (young children) exclusively in Māori. These now[update] extend right through secondary schools (kura tuarua). Most preschool centres teach basics such as colours, numerals and greetings in Māori songs and chants.[165]
Māori Television, a government-funded channel committed to broadcasting primarily in Te Reo, began in March 2004.[94] The 1996 census reported 160,000 Māori speakers.[166] At the time of the 2013 census 125,352 Māori (21.3 per cent) reported a conversational level ofproficiency.[167]
Polynesian settlers in New Zealand developed a distinct society over several hundred years. Social groups were tribal, with no unified society or single Māori identity until after the arrival of Europeans. Nevertheless, common elements could be found in all Māori groups in pre-European New Zealand, including a shared Polynesian heritage, a common basic language, familial associations, traditions of warfare, and similar mythologies and religious beliefs.[168]
Most Māori lived in villages, which were inhabited by severalwhānau (extended families) who collectively formed ahapū (clan or subtribe). Members of ahapū cooperated with food production, gathering resources, raising families and defence. Māori society across New Zealand was broadly stratified into three classes of people:rangatira, chiefs and ruling families;tūtūā, commoners; andmōkai, slaves.Tohunga also held special standing in their communities as specialists of revered arts, skills and esoteric knowledge.[169][170]
Shared ancestry, intermarriage and trade strengthened relationships between different groups. Manyhapū with mutually recognised shared ancestry formediwi, or tribes, which were the largest social unit in Māori society.Hapū andiwi often united for expeditions to gather food and resources, or in times of conflict. In contrast, warfare developed as an integral part of traditional life, as different groups competed for food and resources, settled personal disputes, and sought to increase their prestige and authority.[169]
Early European settlers introduced tools, weapons, clothing and foods to Māori across New Zealand, in exchange for resources, land and labour. Māori began selectively adopting elements of Western society during the 19th century, including European clothing and food, and later Western education, religion and architecture.[171] However, as the 19th century wore on, relations between European colonial settlers and different Māori groups became increasingly strained. Tensions led to widespread conflict in the 1860s, and theconfiscation of millions of acres of Māori land. Significant amounts of land were also purchased by the colonial government and later through theNative Land Court.
"The Māori: Past and Present", article fromThe Sydney Mail, 1903
By the start of the 20th century, a greater awareness had emerged of a unified Māori identity, particularly in comparison to Pākehā, who now overwhelmingly outnumbered the Māori as a whole. Māori and Pākehā societies remained largely separate—socially, culturally, economically and geographically—for much of the 19th and early 20th centuries.[172] The key reason for this was that Māori remained almost exclusively a rural population, whereas increasingly the European population was urban especially after 1900. Nevertheless, Māori groups continued to engage with the government and in legal processes to increase their standing in (and ultimately further their incorporation into) wider New Zealand society.[173] The main point of contact with the government were the four Māori Members of Parliament.
Many Māorimigrated to larger rural towns and cities during the Depression and post-WWII periods in search of employment, leaving rural communities depleted and disconnecting manyurban Māori from their traditional social controls and tribal homelands. Yet whilestandards of living improved among Māori, they continued to lag behind Pākehā in areas such as health, income, skilled employment and access to higher levels of education. Māori leaders and government policymakers alike struggled to deal withsocial issues stemming from increased urban migration, including a shortage of housing and jobs, and a rise in urban crime, poverty and health problems.[174]
In regards to housing, a 1961 census revealed significant differences in the living conditions of Māori and Europeans. That year, out of all the (unshared) non-Māori private dwellings in New Zealand, 96.8 per cent had a bath or shower, 94.1 per cent a hot water service, 88.7 per cent a flush toilet, 81.6 per cent a refrigerator, and 78.6 per cent an electric washing machine. By contrast, for all (unshared) Māori private dwellings that same year, 76.8 per cent had a bath or shower, 68.9 per cent a hot water service, 55.8 per cent a refrigerator, 54.1 per cent a flush toilet, and 47 per cent an electric washing machine.[175]
While the arrival of Europeans had a profound impact on the Māori way of life, many aspects of traditional society have survived into the 21st century. Māori participate fully in all spheres of New Zealand culture and society, leading largely Western lifestyles while also maintaining their own cultural and social customs. The traditional social strata ofrangatira,tūtūā andmōkai have all but disappeared from Māori society, while the roles oftohunga andkaumātua are still present. Traditional kinship ties are also actively maintained, and thewhānau in particular remains an integral part of Māori life.[176]
Māori society at a local level is particularly visible at themarae. Formerly the central meeting spaces in traditional villages,marae today usually comprise a group of buildings around an open space, that frequently host events such as weddings, funerals, church services and other large gatherings, with traditional protocol and etiquette usually observed. They also serve as the base of one or sometimes severalhapū.[177]
Most Māori affiliate with one or moreiwi (andhapū), based on genealogical descent (whakapapa).Iwi vary in size, from a few hundred members to over 100,000 in the case of Ngāpuhi. Many people do not live in their traditional tribal regions as a result of urban migration (seeUrban Māori).Iwi are usually governed byrūnanga (tribal councils or assemblies) which represent theiwi in consultations and negotiations with the New Zealand government.[178]
Māori issues are a prominent feature of race relations in New Zealand. Historically, many Pākehā viewed race relations in their country as being the "best in the world", a view that prevailed until Māori urban migration in the mid-20th century brought cultural and socioeconomic differences to wider attention.[179]
Māori protest movements grew significantly in the 1960s and 1970s seeking redress for past grievances, particularly in regard to land rights. Successive governments have responded by enactingaffirmative action programmes, funding cultural rejuvenation initiatives and negotiating tribal settlements for past breaches of the Treaty of Waitangi.[180] Further efforts have focused on reducingsocioeconomic disparity.[181]
A 2007Department of Corrections report found that Māori are disproportionately represented in the criminal justice system: "a number of studies have shown evidence of greater likelihood, associated only with ethnicity, for Māori offenders to have police contact, be charged, lack legal representation, not be granted bail, plead guilty, be convicted, be sentenced to non-monetary penalties, and be denied release to Home Detention".[182] Conversely, critics denounce the scale of assistance given to Māori as amounting to preferential treatment for a select group of people based on race.[100] Both sentiments were highlighted during theforeshore and seabed controversy in 2004, in which the New Zealand government claimed sole ownership of the New Zealand foreshore and seabed, over the objections of Māori groups who were seeking customary title.[183]
Māori on average have fewer assets than the rest of the population, and run greater risks of many negative economic and social outcomes. Over 50 per cent of Māori live in areas in the three highest deprivation deciles, compared with 24 per cent of the rest of the population.[184]
Although Māori make up 16.5 per cent of the population,[185] they make up 53.0 per cent of the prison population.[186] Māori have higher unemployment rates than other ethnic groups in New Zealand, which is believed to partially account for their over-representation in the criminal justice system; many young Māori, finding themselves unemployed, are picked up for alcohol-related behaviours or small crimes such as vandalism.[187]Underemployment is in turn attributed to persistentinstitutional racism in New Zealand.[188][189]
"Only 47 per cent of Māori school-leavers finish school with qualifications higher thanNCEA Level One; compared to 74 per cent European; 87 per cent Asian."[190]Although New Zealand rates very well globally in the PISA rankings that compare national performance in reading, science and maths, "once you disaggregate the PISA scores, Pakeha students are second in the world and Māori are 34th."[191] At the 2018 New Zealand census, 25.3% of Māori aged 15 and over had no formal qualifications, compared to 17.1% for non-Māori New Zealanders, and only 12.5% of Māori have a bachelor's degree or higher, compared to 26.8% of non-Māori.[192]
Also, a 2008 study by the New Zealand Family Violence Clearinghouse showed that Māori women and children are more likely to experience domestic violence than any other ethnic group.[193]
In 2017–2019, life expectancy for Māori in New Zealand was 73.4 years for males and 77.1 years for females, compared to 80.9 years for non-Māori males and 84.4 years for non-Māori females, a difference of 7.5 and 7.3 years respectively.[194][195] However, Māori have a wide range of life expectancies across regions: Māori living in theMarlborough region have the highest life expectancy at 79.9 years for males and 83.4 years for females, while Māori living in theGisborne region have the lowest life expectancy at 71.2 years for males and 75.2 years for females.[195]
Māori suffer more health problems, including higher levels of alcohol and drug abuse, smoking and obesity. Less frequent use of healthcare services mean that late diagnosis and treatment intervention lead to higher levels of morbidity and mortality in many manageable conditions.[196][197][198] Compared with non-Māori, Māori people experience higher rates ofheart disease,strokes, mostcancers,respiratory diseases,rheumatic fever,suicide andself-harm, andinfant deaths.[199]
In April 2021,the government announced the creation of the first dedicated Māori Health Authority "with the power to directly commission health services for Māori and to partner with Health NZ in other aspects of the health system".[200]
Wider commercial exposure has increased public awareness of the Māori culture, but has also resulted in several legal disputes. Between 1998 and 2006,Ngāti Toa attempted to trademark thehaka "Ka Mate" to prevent its use by commercial organisations without their permission.[201] In 2001, Danish toymaker Legofaced legal action by several Māori tribal groups opposed to them trademarking Māori words used in the Bionicle product range.[202]
Māori have been represented tothe Crown in New Zealand politics since theDeclaration of the Independence of New Zealand, before the Treaty of Waitangi was signed in 1840. Being a traditionally tribal people, no one organisation ostensibly speaks for all Māori nationwide. TheMāori King Movement (Kīngitanga) originated in the 1860s as an attempt by severaliwi to unify under one leader; in modern times, it serves a largely ceremonial role. Another attempt at political unity was the Kotahitanga Movement, which established a separate Māori Parliament that held annual sessions from 1892 until its last sitting in 1902.[204]
Māori have hadreserved seats in theNew Zealand Parliament since 1868.[205] Māori receiveduniversal suffrage with other New Zealand citizens in 1893.[206] Currently, Māori reserved electorates account for seven of the 120 seats in New Zealand's unicameral parliament, and consideration of and consultation with Māori have become routine requirements for councils and government organisations.[205] The contesting of these seats was the first opportunity for many Māori to participate in New Zealand elections, although the elected Māori representatives initially struggled to assert significant influence.Sir Āpirana Ngata has often been described as the foremost Māori politician to have served in Parliament in the mid-20th century.[207]
Debate occurs frequently as to the relevance and legitimacy of the separateelectoral roll and the reserved seats. The National Party announced in 2008 it would abolish the seats when all historic Treaty settlements have been resolved, which it aimed to complete by 2014.[208] However, after the election National reached an agreement with the Māori Party not to abolish the seats until Māori give their approval.[209]
^The orthographic conventions developed by theMāori Language Commission (Te Taura Whiri i te Reo Māori) recommend the use of themacron (ā ē ī ō ū) to denote long vowels. Contemporary English-language usage in New Zealand tends to avoid theanglicised plural form of the wordMāori with an "s": The Māori language generally marks plurals by changing thearticle rather than the noun, for example:te waka (the canoe);ngā waka (the canoes).
^New Zealand-born figures from the 2000 U.S. Census; maximum figure represents sum of "Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander" and people of mixed race. United States Census Bureau (2003)."Census 2000 Foreign-Born Profiles (STP-159): Country of Birth: New Zealand"(PDF). (103 KB). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Census Bureau.
^e.g.kanaka maoli, meaning nativeHawaiian. (In theHawaiian language, the Polynesian letter "T" regularly becomes a "K," and the Polynesian letter "R" regularly becomes an "L")
^Te Hurinui, Pei (1958)."Maori genealogies".Journal of the Polynesian Society.67 (2):162–165.
^Te Papa Atwahai, Department of Conservation (NZ)."Enderby Island Māori occupation".Department of Conservation (NZ). Te Kāwanatanga o Aotearoa / New Zealand Government. Retrieved22 August 2023.
^abMcFadgen, Bruce G.; Adds, Peter (18 February 2018). "Tectonic activity and the history of Wairau Bar, New Zealand's iconic site of early settlement".Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand.49 (4):459–473.doi:10.1080/03036758.2018.1431293.S2CID134727439.
^Till, Charlotte E.; Easton, Luke J.; Spencer, Hamish G.; Schukard, Rob; Melville, David S.; Scofield, R. Paul; Tennyson, Alan J. D.; Rayner, Matt J.; Waters, Jonathan M.; Kennedy, Martyn (October 2017). "Speciation, range contraction and extinction in the endemic New Zealand King Shag".Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution.115:197–209.doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2017.07.011.PMID28803756.
^Perry, George L.W.; Wheeler, Andrew B.; Wood, Jamie R.; Wilmshurst, Janet M. (2014). "A high-precision chronology for the rapid extinction of New Zealand moa (Aves, Dinornithiformes)".Quaternary Science Reviews.105:126–135.Bibcode:2014QSRv..105..126P.doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.09.025.
^Neich Roger, 2001.Carved Histories: Rotorua Ngati Tarawhai Woodcarving. Auckland: Auckland University Press, pp. 48–49.
^Clark, Ross (1994). "Moriori and Māori: The Linguistic Evidence". In Sutton, Douglas (ed.).The Origins of the First New Zealanders. Auckland:Auckland University Press. pp. 123–135.
^Manning, Frederick Edward (1863)."Chapter 13".Old New Zealand: being Incidents of Native Customs and Character in the Old Times by 'A Pakeha Maori': Chapter 13.every man in a nativehapu of, say a hundred men, was absolutely forced on pain of death to procure a musket and ammunition at any cost, and at the earliest possible moment (for, if they did not procure them, extermination was their doom by the hands of those of their country-men who had), the effect was that this smallhapu, or clan, had to manufacture, spurred by the penalty of death, in the shortest possible time, one hundred tons of flax, scraped by hand with a shell, bit by bit, morsel by morsel, half-a-quarter of an ounce at a time.
^Rice G, Bryder L. "7. 'Severest setback' for Maori?".Black November: the 1918 influenza pandemic in New Zealand (Second, revised and enlarged ed.). Christchurch, NZ.ISBN978-1-927145-91-3.OCLC960210402.
^"Te Kōhanga Reo National Trust". Retrieved10 April 2019.Te Kōhanga Reo National Trust Board was established in 1982 and formalised as a charitable trust in 1983. The Mission of the Trust is the protection of Te reo, tikanga me ngā āhuatanga Māori by targeting the participation of mokopuna and whānau into the Kōhanga Reo movement and its Vision is to totally immerse Kōhanga mokopuna in Te Reo, Tikanga me ngā āhuatanga Māori.
^King, Michael (2003).The Penguin History of New Zealand. London: Penguin. p. 91.
^Pool, Ian (2015).Colonization and Development in New Zealand between 1769 and 1900: The Seeds of Rangiatea. Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.
^New Zealand-born figures from the 2000 U.S. Census; maximum figure represents sum of "Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander" and people of mixed race. United States Census Bureau (2003)."Census 2000 Foreign-Born Profiles (STP-159): Country of Birth: New Zealand"(PDF). (103 KB). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Census Bureau.
^Hanly, Gil."Shoes at the door of the wharenui".Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand – Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved31 March 2020.
^Biddle, Teurikore (2012). "The Power of Performance: The Constancy of Māori Expressional Culture". In Keenan, Danny (ed.).Huia histories of Māori : ngā tāhuhu kōrero. Wellington, N.Z.: Huia.ISBN978-1-77550-009-4.OCLC779490407.
^Schultz, Marianne (2014)."Contemporary Māori and Pacific dance".Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu Taonga. Retrieved20 May 2021.
^"Mana Māori"Archived 14 October 2008 at theWayback Machine. Community Action Toolkit to Prevent Family Violence Information Sheet #30 (p. 40). Retrieved 16 July 2009.
Hill, Richard S (2009). "Maori and State Policy". In Byrnes, Giselle (ed.).The New Oxford History of New Zealand. Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-558471-4.
Howe, K. R. (2003).The quest for origins: who first discovered and settled the Pacific islands?. University of Hawaii Press.ISBN978-0-14-301857-5.
Howe, Kerry (2006). "Ideas of Māori Origins". InMāori Peoples of New Zealand: Ngā Iwi o Aotearoa. Te Ara – The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Auckland: David Bateman.
Irwin, Geoffrey (2006). "Pacific Migrations". InMāori Peoples of New Zealand: Ngā Iwi o Aotearoa. Te Ara – The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Auckland: David Bateman.
Lashley, Marilyn E. (2006). "Remedying Racial and Ethnic Inequality in New Zealand: Reparative and Distributive Policies of Social Justice". In Myers, Samuel L.; Corrie, Bruce P. (eds.).Racial and ethnic economic inequality: an international perspective. Vol. 1996. New York: Peter Lang.ISBN978-0-8204-5656-0.
McIntosh, Tracey (2005), 'Maori Identities: Fixed, Fluid, Forced', in James H. Liu, Tim McCreanor, Tracey McIntosh and Teresia Teaiwa, eds,New Zealand Identities: Departures and Destinations, Wellington:Victoria University Press
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