Ludi (Latin:games; plural of "ludus") were public games held for the benefit and entertainment of theRoman people (populus Romanus).Ludi were held in conjunction with, or sometimes as the major feature of,Roman religiousfestivals, and were also presented as part of thecult of state.
The earliestludi werehorse races in thecircus (ludi circenses).[1] Animal exhibitions with mock hunts (venationes) andtheatrical performances (ludi scaenici) also became part of the festivals.[2] Because some of these entertainments are not competitive "games",ludi may also be translated more generally as "shows".[3]
Days on whichludi were held were public holidays, and no business could be conducted—"remarkably," it has been noted, "considering that in theImperial era more than 135 days might be spent at these entertainments" during the year.[4] Although their entertainment value may have overshadowed religious sentiment at any given moment, even inlate antiquity theludi were understood as part of the worship of the traditional gods, and theChurch Fathers thus advisedChristians not to participate in the festivities.[5]
The singular formludus, "game, sport" or "play" has several meanings in Latin.[6] The plural is used for "games" in a sense analogous to the Greek festivals of games, such as thePanhellenic Games.[7] Thelate-antique scholarIsidore of Seville, however, classifies the forms ofludus asgymnicus ("athletic"),circensis ("held in the circus," mainly thechariot races),gladiatorius ("gladiatorial") andscaenicus ("theatrical").[8] The relation of gladiatorial games to theludi is complex; seeGladiator.
Originally, allludi seem to have been votive offerings (ludi votivi), staged as thefulfillment of a vow to a deity whose favor had been sought and evidenced. In 366 BC, theLudi Romani became the first games to be placed on thereligious calendar as an annual event sponsored by thestate as a whole.[9] Games in the circus were preceded by a parade(pompa circensis) featuring the competitors, mounted youths of theRoman nobility, armed dancers, musicians, asatyr chorus, and images ofthe gods. As the product of military victory,ludi were often connected totriumphs. The first recordedvenatio (staged beast hunt) was presented in 186 BC byM. Fulvius Nobilior as part of hisludi votivi, for which he paid with booty displayed at his triumph.[10]
As religious ceremonies,ludi were organized at first by variouscolleges of priests; during theRepublic, they were later presented byconsuls, but became most associated with the responsibilities of theaediles. Although public money was allocated for the staging ofludi, the presiding official increasingly came to augment the splendor of his games from personal funds as a form ofpublic relations.[11] The sponsor was able to advertise his wealth, while declaring that he intended to share it for public benefit. Although some men with an eye on the consulship skipped the office of aedile for the very reason that massive expenditures were expected, those with sufficient resources spent lavishly to cultivate the favor of the people. The religious festivals to which theludi were attached also occasioned public banquets, and often public works such as the refurbishing or building of temples.[12]
Following theassassination of Julius Caesar at the Ides of March in 44 BC,Marcus Brutus realized that a significant segment of thepopulus regarded him not as a liberator, but as the murderer of a beloved champion, and among other gestures of goodwill toward the people, he arranged to sponsor theLudi Apollinares, held annually July 6–13. Caesar's heirOctavian at once upstaged him withLudi Victoriae Caesaris, "games in honor of Caesar's victory," which ran July 20–28 in conjunction with a festival to honorVenus Genetrix, Caesar's patron deity and divine matriarch of theJuliangens. During theseludi, which also served as funeral games, abright comet appeared, which was taken as a sign ofCaesar's newly divine status. Octavian recognized the value of the festivals in unifying the people, and asAugustus instituted newludi within his program of religious reform; public spectacles and entertainments were thus subsumed byImperial cult.[13]
Theludi compitalicii ("crossroads games") were entertainments staged by the neighborhoods or community associations of Rome (vici)[14] in conjunction with theCompitalia, thenew year festival held on movable dates between theSaturnalia and January 5[15] in honor of the crossroadsLares. In the late Republic, performances were held at the main intersections of neighborhoods throughout the city on the same day.[16] During thecivil wars of the 80s, theseludi gave rise to often unrulyplebeian political expression by the neighborhood organizations.Freedmen played a leading role, and even slaves participated in the festivities.
In 67 BC, the Compitalia had been disrupted by a riot at theludi,[17] which were also the scene of disturbances in 66–65 BC. This unrest on the first occasion was a response to the trial ofManilius, who had backed reforms pertaining to thevoting rights of freedmen, and on the second is attached to the murky events later referred to misleadingly as theFirst Catilinarian Conspiracy.[18] Along with some forms of occupational guilds (collegia) and neighborhood associations, theludi compitalicii were consequently banned by thesenate in 64 BC.[19]
An unnamedtribune of theplebs supported efforts to stage theludi for 61 BC, but the consul-designateMetellus Celer halted the attempt.[20] In 58 BC,Clodius Pulcher, who had given up hispatrician status to become one of the people's tribunes, restored theright of association, but even before his law was enacted, his aideSextus Cloelius had prepared the way by organizing new-yearludi. The consulCalpurnius Piso, father-in-law of Caesar, permitted the games, even though the organizations that ran them were still outlawed.[21] Caesar banned thecollegia andludi again in 46 BC.
In 7 BC,Augustus reorganized Rome for administrative purposes into 265 districts which replaced but which were still calledvici.[22] An image of theGenius of Augustus now stood between the Lares at the crossroads shrines, and theludi once considered dangerously subversive became expressions of Imperialpiety.[23]
Ludi circenses were games presented in thecircus. TheCircus Maximus was primarily a venue for chariot races, but other athletic events, races, and beast hunts might be offered as well.[24] The games were preceded by an opening parade, thepompa circensis.Ludi circenses were regularly featured in celebrating atriumph or dedicating a major building. They were part of the most important holidays and festivals, such as theFloralia,Ludi Romani ("Roman Games"), andLudi Plebeii ("Plebeian Games").[25] During the Imperial era, circus games were often added to festivals for which they were not traditionally celebrated in the Republic.[26] Circus games were held in variousprovinces throughout the empire, as indicated by archaeological remains of tracks and supporting structures, although many areas would have lacked costly permanent facilities and instead erected temporary stands around suitable grounds.[27]
The following lists ofludi are not exhaustive. Unless otherwise noted, the sources are Matthew Bunson,A Dictionary of the Roman Empire (Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 246–247, and Roland Auguet,Cruelty and Civilization: The Roman Games (Routledge, 1972, 1994) pp. 212–213.
Listed in order by month as they appear on theRoman calendar.
The followingludi were held only once.