| Foot binding | |||||||||||||||||||
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| Traditional Chinese | 纏足 | ||||||||||||||||||
| Simplified Chinese | 缠足 | ||||||||||||||||||
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| Traditional Chinese | 裹腳 | ||||||||||||||||||
| Simplified Chinese | 裹脚 | ||||||||||||||||||
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Foot binding (simplified Chinese:缠足;traditional Chinese:纏足;pinyin:chánzú), orfootbinding, was the Chinese custom of breaking and tightly binding the feet of young girls to change their shape and size. Feet altered by foot binding were known aslotus feet and the shoes made for them were known aslotus shoes. In late imperial China, bound feet were considered astatus symbol and a mark of feminine beauty. However, foot binding was a painful practice that limited the mobility of women and resulted in lifelong disabilities.
The prevalence and practice of foot binding varied over time and by region and social class.[1] The practice may have originated among court dancers during theFive Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period in 10th-century China and gradually became popular among the elite during theSong dynasty, later spreading to lower social classes by theQing dynasty (1644–1912).Manchu emperors attempted to ban the practice in the 17th century but failed.[2] In some areas, foot binding raised marriage prospects. It has been estimated that by the 19th century 40–50% of all Chinese women may have had bound feet, rising to almost 100% among upper-classHan Chinese women.[3] Frontier ethnic groups such asTurkestanis,Manchus,Mongols, andTibetans generally did not practice footbinding, except for those who assimilated into Chinese culture.[4][5] Therefore, policies of assimilating other ethnic groups into Chinese culture had the harmful effect of spreading footbinding.
WhileChristian missionaries and Chinese reformers challenged the practice in the late 19th century, it was not until the early 20th century that the practice began to die out, following the efforts of anti-foot binding campaigns. Additionally, upper-class and urban women dropped the practice sooner than poorer rural women.[6] By 2007, only a handful of elderly Chinese women whose feet had been bound were still alive.[7]
There are a number of stories about the origin of foot binding before its establishment during theSong dynasty. One of these accounts is ofPan Yunu, a favourite consort of theSouthern Qi EmperorXiao Baojuan. In the story, Pan Yunu, renowned for having delicate feet, performed a dance barefoot on a floor decorated with the design of a golden lotus. The Emperor, expressing admiration, said that "lotus springs from her every step!" (bù bù shēng lián歩歩生蓮), a reference to theBuddhist legend of Padmavati, under whose feet lotus springs forth. This story may have given rise to the terms 'golden lotus' or 'lotus feet' used to describe bound feet; there is no evidence, however, that Consort Pan ever bound her feet.[8]
The general view is that the practice is likely to have originated during the reign of the 10th-century EmperorLi Yu of theSouthern Tang, just before the Song dynasty.[2] Li Yu created a 1.8-meter-tall (6 ft) golden lotus decorated with precious stones and pearls and asked his concubine Yao Niang(窅娘) to bind her feet in white silk into the shape of the crescent moon. She then performed a dance on the points of her bound feet on the lotus.[2] Yao Niang's dance was said to be so graceful that others sought to imitate her.[9] The binding of feet was then replicated by other upper-class women and the practice spread.[10]
Some of the earliest possible references to foot binding appear around 1100, when a couple of poems seemed to allude to the practice.[11][12][13][14] Soon after 1148,[14] in the earliest extant discourse on the practice of foot binding, scholarZhang Bangji [zh] wrote that a bound foot should be arch shaped and small.[15][16] He observed that "women's foot binding began in recent times; it was not mentioned in any books from previous eras."[14] In the 13th century, scholarChe Ruoshui [zh] wrote the first known criticism of the practice: "Little girls not yet four or five years old, who have done nothing wrong, nevertheless are made to suffer unlimited pain to bind [their feet] small. I do not know what use this is."[14][17][18]
The earliest archeological evidence for foot binding dates to the tombs of Huang Sheng, who died in 1243 at the age of 17, and Madame Zhou, who died in 1274. Each woman's remains showed feet bound with gauze strips measuring 1.8 m (6 ft) in length. Zhou's skeleton, particularly well preserved, showed that her feet fit into the narrow, pointed slippers that were buried with her.[14] The style of bound feet found in Song dynasty tombs, where the big toe was bent upwards, appears to be different from the 'the 'three-inch golden lotus' of later eras. The more severe form of footbinding may have developed in the 16th century.[20][21]
At the end of theSong dynasty, men would drink from a special shoe, the heel of which contained a small cup. During theYuan dynasty some would also drink directly from the shoe itself. This practice was called 'toast to the golden lotus' and lasted until the lateQing dynasty.[22]
The first European to mention foot binding was the Italian missionaryOdoric of Pordenone in the 14th century, during the Yuan dynasty.[23] However no other foreign visitors to Yuan China mentioned the practice, includingIbn Battuta andMarco Polo (who nevertheless noted the dainty walk of Chinese women, who took very small steps), perhaps an indication that it was not a widespread or extreme practice at that time.[24] The Mongols themselves did not practice footbinding but it was permitted for their Chinese subjects.[25][10] The practice became increasingly common among the gentry families, later spreading to the general populace, as commoners and theatre actors alike adopted foot binding. By theMing period the practice was no longer the preserve of the gentry but it was considered a status symbol.[26][27][28] As foot binding restricted the movement of a woman, one side effect of its rising popularity was the corresponding decline of theart of women's dance in China, and it became increasingly rare to hear about beauties and courtesans who were also great dancers after the Song era.[29][30]
TheManchus issued a number of edicts to ban the practice, first in 1636 when the Manchu leaderHong Taiji declared the founding of the new Qing dynasty, then in 1638, and another in 1664 by the Kangxi Emperor.[26] Few Han Chinese complied with the edicts, and Kangxi eventually abandoned the effort in 1668. By the 19th century, it was estimated that 40–50% of Chinese women had bound feet. Among upper class Han Chinese women, the figure was almost 100%.[7] Bound feet became a mark of beauty and were also a prerequisite for finding a husband. They also became an avenue for poorer women tomarry up in some areas, such as Sichuan.[31] In late 19th century Guangdong it was customary to bind the feet of the eldest daughter of a lower-class family who was intended to be brought up as a lady. Her younger sisters would grow up to be bond-servants or domestic slaves and be able to work in the fields, but the eldest daughter would be assumed never to have the need to work. Women, their families and their husbands took great pride in tiny feet, with the ideal length, called the 'Golden Lotus', being about threeChinese inches (寸) long—around 11 cm (4.3 in).[32][33] This pride was reflected in the elegantly embroidered silk slippers and wrappings girls and women wore to cover their feet. Handmade shoes served to exhibit the embroidery skill of the wearer as well.[34] These shoes also served as support, as some women with bound feet might not have been able to walk without the support of their shoes and would have been severely limited in their mobility.[35] Contrary to missionary writings, many women with bound feet were able to walk and work in the fields, albeit with greater limitations than their non-bound counterparts.[36]
In the 19th and early 20th centuries, there were dancers with bound feet as well as circus performers who stood on prancing or running horses. Women with bound feet in one village inYunnan Province formed a regional dance troupe to perform for tourists in the late 20th century, though age has since forced the group to retire.[37] In other areas, women in their 70s and 80s assisted in the rice fields (albeit in a limited capacity) even into the early 21st century.[7]
Opposition to foot binding had been raised by some Chinese writers in the 18th century. In the mid-19th century, many of the leaders of theTaiping Rebellion were men ofHakka background whose women did not bind their feet, and they outlawed foot binding in areas under their control.[38][39] However the rebellion failed and Christian missionaries, who had provided education for girls and actively discouraged what they considered a barbaric practice that had deleterious social effect on women,[40] then played a part in changing elite opinion on foot binding through education,pamphleteering and lobbying of the Qing court,[41][42] as no other culture in the world practised the custom of foot binding.[43]
The earliest-known Western anti-foot binding society was formed in Amoy (Xiamen) in 1874. 60–70 Christian women in Xiamen attended a meeting presided over by a missionary, John MacGowan, and formed the Natural Foot Society (Tianzu Hui(天足会), literallyHeavenly Foot Society).[44][45] MacGowan held the view that foot binding was a serious problem that called into doubt the whole of Chinese civilization; he felt that "the nefarious civilization interferes with Divine Nature."[46] Members of the Heavenly Foot Society vowed not to bind their daughters' feet.[43][40] In 1895, Christian women inShanghai led byAlicia Little, also formed aNatural Foot Society.[45][47] It was also championed by the Woman's Christian Temperance Movement founded in 1883 and advocated bymissionaries includingTimothy Richard, who thought that Christianity could promoteequality between the sexes.[48] This missionary-led opposition had stronger impacts than earlier Han or Manchu opposition.[49] Western missionaries established the first schools for girls, and encouraged women to end the practice of foot binding.[50] Christian missionaries did not conceal their shock and disgust either when explaining the process of foot binding to Western peers and their descriptions shocked their audience back home.[49]
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Reform-minded Chinese intellectuals began to consider foot binding to be an aspect of their culture that needed to be eliminated.[51] In 1883,Kang Youwei founded theAnti-footbinding Society nearCanton to combat the practice, and anti-foot binding societies appeared across the country, with membership for the movement claimed to reach 300,000.[52][53] The anti-foot binding movement stressed pragmatic and patriotic reasons rather than feminist ones, arguing that abolition of foot binding would lead to better health and more efficient labour. Kang Youwei submitted a petition to the throne commenting on the fact that China had become a joke to foreigners and that "footbinding was the primary object of such ridicule."[54]
Reformers such asLiang Qichao, influenced bySocial Darwinism, also argued that it weakened the nation, since enfeebled women supposedly produced weak sons.[55] In his "On Women's Education", Liang Qichao asserts that the root cause of national weakness inevitably lies the lack of education for women. Qichao connected education for women and foot binding: "As long as foot binding remains in practice, women's education can never flourish."[56] Qichao was also disappointed that foreigners had opened the first schools as he thought that the Chinese should be teaching Chinese women.[54] At the turn of the 20th century, earlyfeminists, such asQiu Jin, called for the end of foot binding.[57][58] In 1906, Zhao Zhiqian wrote inBeijing Women's News to blame women with bound feet for being a national weakness in the eyes of other nations.[59] Many members of anti-foot binding groups pledged to not bind their daughters' feet nor to allow their sons to marry women with bound feet.[45][60] In 1902,Empress Dowager Cixi issued an anti-foot binding edict, but it was soon rescinded.[citation needed]
In 1912 the newRepublic of China government banned foot binding, though the ban was not actively implemented,[61] and leading intellectuals of theMay Fourth Movement saw foot binding as a major symbol of China's backwardness.[62] Provincial leaders, such asYan Xishan in Shanxi, engaged in their own sustained campaign against foot binding with foot inspectors and fines for those who continued the practice,[61] while regional governments of the laterNanjing regime also enforced the ban.[41] The campaign against foot binding was successful in some regions. In one province, a 1929 survey showed that, while only 2.3% of girls born before 1910 had unbound feet, 95% of those born after were not bound.[63] In a region south ofBeijing,Dingxian, where over 99% of women once had bound feet, no new cases were found among those born after 1919.[64][65] In Taiwan, the practice was also discouraged by the ruling Japanese from the beginning ofJapanese rule, and from 1911 to 1915 it was gradually made illegal.[66] The practice lingered on in some regions in China. In 1928, a census in ruralShanxi found that 18% of women had bound feet,[37] while in some remote rural areas, such as Yunnan Province, it continued to be practiced until the 1950s.[67][68] In most parts of China the practice had virtually disappeared by 1949.[63] The practice was also stigmatized in Communist China, and the last vestiges of foot binding were stamped out, with the last new case of foot binding reported in 1957.[69][70] By the 21st century, only a few elderly women in China still had bound feet.[71][72] In 1999, the last shoe factory making lotus shoes, the Zhiqian Shoe Factory inHarbin, closed.[73][74]
Foot binding was practised in various forms and its prevalence varied in different regions.[75] A less severe form in Sichuan, called "cucumber foot" (huángguā jiǎo黃瓜腳) due to its slender shape, folded the four toes under but did not distort the heel or taper the ankle.[37][76] Some working women inJiangsu made a pretence of binding while keeping their feet natural.[41] Not all women were always bound—some women once bound remained bound throughout their lives, some were only briefly bound and some were bound until marriage.[77] Foot binding was most common among women whose work involved domesticcrafts and those in urban areas;[41] it was also more common in northern China, where it was widely practised by women of all social classes, but less so in parts of southern China such asGuangdong andGuangxi, where it was largely a practice of women in the provincial capitals or among the gentry.[78][15] Feet were bound to their smallest in the northern provinces of Hebei, Shandong, Shanxi and Shaanxi, but the binding was less extreme and less common in the southern provinces of Guangdong, Guangxi, Yunnan and Guizhou, where not all daughters of the wealthy had bound feet.[79] Foot binding limited the mobility of girls, so they became engaged in handwork from childhood.[34] It is thought that the necessity for female labour in the fields owing to a longer growing season in the South and the impracticability of bound feet working in wet rice fields limited the spread of the practice in the countryside of the South.[80] However some farming women bound their daughter's feet, but "the process began later than in elite families, and feet were bound more loosely among the poor."[81]
Manchu women, as well as Mongol and Chinese women in theEight Banners, did not bind their feet. The most a Manchu woman might do was to wrap the feet tightly to give them a slender appearance.[5] The Manchus, wanting to emulate the particular gait that bound feet necessitated, adapted their own form of platform shoes to cause them to walk in a similar swaying manner. TheseManchu platform shoes were known as "flower bowl" shoes (Chinese:花盆鞋;pinyin:Huāpénxié) or "horse-hoof" shoes (Chinese:馬蹄鞋;pinyin:Mǎtíxié); they have a platform generally made of wood 5–20 cm (2–6 in) in height and fitted to the middle of the sole, or they have a small central tapered pedestal. ManyHan Chinese in the Inner City of Beijing did not bind their feet either, and it was reported in the mid-1800s that around 50–60% of non-banner women had unbound feet. Han immigrant women to the Northeast came under Manchu influence and abandoned foot binding.[82] Bound feet nevertheless became a significant differentiating marker between Han women and Manchu or other banner women.[5]
TheHakka people were unusual among Han Chinese in not practising foot binding.[83][84] Most non-Han Chinese people, such as the Manchus, Mongols and Tibetans, did not bind their feet. Some non-Han ethnic groups did. Foot binding was practised by theHui Muslims inGansu Province.[85] TheDungan Muslims, descendants of Hui from northwestern China who fled to central Asia, were also practising foot binding up to 1948.[86] In southern China, in Canton (Guangzhou), 19th-century Scottish scholarJames Legge noted a mosque that had a placard denouncing foot binding, saying Islam did not allow it since it constituted violating the creation of God.[87]
The process was started before the arch of the foot had a chance to develop fully, usually between the ages of four and nine. Binding usually started during the winter months since the feet were more likely to be numb and the pain would not be as extreme.[88]
First, each foot would be soaked in a warm mixture of herbs and animal blood. This was intended to soften the foot and aid the binding. Then the toenails were cut back as far as possible to prevent in-growth and subsequent infections, since the toes were to be pressed tightly into the sole of the foot. Cotton bandages, 3 m (10 ft) long and 5 cm (2 in) wide, were prepared by soaking them in the blood and herb mixture. To enable the size of the feet to be reduced, the toes on each foot were curled under, then pressed with great force downwards and squeezed into the sole of the foot until the toes broke.[43]
The bandages were repeatedly wound in a figure-eight movement, starting at the inside of the foot at the instep, then carried over the toes, under the foot and around the heel, the broken toes being pressed tightly into the sole of the foot. The foot was drawn down straight with the leg and the arch of the foot forcibly broken. At each pass around the foot, the binding cloth was tightened, pulling the ball of the foot and the heel together, causing the broken foot to fold at the arch, pressing the toes beneath the sole. The binding was pulled so tightly that the girl could not move her toes at all and the ends of the binding cloth were then sewn so that the girl could not loosen it.
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The girl's broken feet required a great deal of care and attention and they would be unbound regularly. Each time the feet were unbound they were washed, the toes checked for injury, and the nails trimmed. When unbound, the broken feet were also kneaded to soften them and the soles of the girl's feet were often beaten to make the joints and broken bones more flexible. The feet were also soaked in a concoction that caused necrotic flesh to fall off.[51]
Immediately after this procedure, the girl's broken toes were folded back under and the feet were rebound. The bindings were pulled even tighter each time the girl's feet were rebound. This unbinding and rebinding ritual was repeated as often as possible (for the rich at least once daily, for poor peasants two or three times a week), with fresh bindings. It was generally an elder female member of the girl's family or a professional footbinder who carried out the initial breaking and ongoing binding of the feet. It was considered preferable to have someone other than the mother do it, as she might have been sympathetic to her daughter's pain and less willing to keep the bindings tight.[88]
Once a girl's foot had been crushed and bound, attempting to reverse the process by unbinding was painful,[89] and the shape could not be reversed without a woman undergoing the same pain again. The timing and degree of foot binding varied among communities.[90]
The most common problem with bound feet wasinfection. Despite the amount of care taken in regularly trimming the toenails, they would often in-grow, becoming infected and causing injuries to the toes. Sometimes, for this reason, the girl's toenails would be peeled back and removed altogether. The tightness of the binding meant that the circulation in the feet was faulty, and the circulation to the toes was almost cut off, so injuries to the toes were unlikely to heal and were likely to gradually worsen and lead to infected toes and rotting flesh. The necrosis of the flesh would initially give off a foul odour. Later the smell may have come from various microorganisms that colonized the folds.[91] Most of the women receiving treatment did not go out often and were disabled.[43]
If the infection in the feet and toes entered the bones, it could cause them to soften, which could result in toes dropping off. This was seen as a benefit because the feet could then be bound even more tightly. Girls whose toes were more fleshy would sometimes have shards of glass or pieces of broken tiles inserted within the binding next to her feet and between her toes to cause injury and introduce infection deliberately.[92] Disease inevitably followed infection, meaning that death fromseptic shock could result from foot binding, and a surviving girl was more at risk of medical problems as she grew older. It is thought that as many as 10% of girls may have died fromgangrene and other infections owing to foot binding.[93]
At the beginning of the binding, many of the foot bones would remain broken, often for years. However as the girl grew older the bones would begin to heal. Even after the foot bones had healed, they were prone to rebreaking repeatedly, especially when the girl was in her teenage years and her feet were still soft. Bones in the girls' feet would often be deliberately broken again to further change the size or shape of the feet. This was especially the case with the girl's toes, which were broken several times since small toes were especially desirable.[94] Older women were more likely to break hips and other bones in falls, since they could not balance properly on their feet, and were less able to rise to their feet from a sitting position.[95] Other issues that may have arisen from foot binding included paralysis andmuscular atrophy.[89] By the turn of the century foot binding had been exposed in photographs, X-rays and detailed textual descriptions. These scientific investigations detailed how foot binding deformed the leg, covered the skin with cracks and sores and altered the posture.[96]There is also some evidence that points to some older women in select rural areas experiencing higher levels of osteoporosis morbidities.[97]
There are many interpretations to the practice of foot binding. The interpretive models used include fashion (with the Chinese customs somewhat comparable to the more extreme examples of Western women's fashion such as theWasp waist), seclusion (sometimes evaluated as morally superior to the gender mingling in the West),perversion (the practice imposed by men with sexual perversions), inexplicable deformation, child abuse and extreme cultural traditionalism. In the late 20th century some feminists introduced positive overtones, reporting that it gave some women a sense of mastery over their bodies and pride in their beauty.[98]
Before foot binding was practised in China, admiration for small feet already existed as demonstrated by theTang dynasty tale ofYe Xian written around 850 byDuan Chengshi. This tale of a girl who lost her shoe and then married a king who sought the owner of the shoe as only her foot was small enough to fit the shoe contains elements of the European story ofCinderella and is thought to be one of its antecedents.[99][100] For many, the bound feet were an enhancement to a woman's beauty and made her movement more dainty,[101] and a woman with perfect lotus feet was likely to make a more prestigious marriage.[102][103] Even while not much was written on the subject of foot binding prior to the latter half of the 19th century, the writings that were done on this topic, particularly by educated men, frequently alluded to the erotic nature and appeal of bound feet in their poetry.[103] The desirability varies with the size of the feet—the perfect bound feet and the most desirable (called'golden lotuses') would be around 3 Chinese inches (around 10 cm or 4 in) or smaller, while those larger were called'silver lotuses' (4 Chinese inches—around 13 cm or 5.1 in) or'iron lotuses' (5 Chinese inches—around 17 cm or 6.7 in—or larger, and thus the least desirable for marriage).[104] Therefore people had greater expectations for foot binding brides.[105] The belief that foot binding made women more desirable to men is widely used as an explanation for the spread and persistence of foot binding.[106]
Some also considered bound feet to be intensely erotic. Some men preferred never to see a woman's bound feet, so they were always concealed within tiny 'lotus shoes' and wrappings. According toRobert van Gulik, the bound feet were also considered the most intimate part of a woman's body. Inerotic art of the Qing period where the genitalia may be shown, the bound feet were never depicted uncovered.[107] Howard Levy, however, suggests that the barely revealed bound foot may also only function as an initial tease.[106]
An effect of the bound feet was the lotus gait, the tiny steps and swaying walk of a woman whose feet had been bound. Women with such deformed feet avoided placing weight on the front of the foot and tended to walk predominantly on their heels.[88] Walking on bound feet necessitated bending the knees slightly and swaying to maintain proper movement and balance, a dainty walk that was also considered to be erotically attractive to some men.[108] Some men found the smell of the bound feet attractive and some also apparently believed that bound feet would cause layers of folds to develop in the vagina, and that the thighs would become sensuously heavier and the vagina tighter.[109] The psychoanalystSigmund Freud considered foot binding to be a "perversion that corresponds tofoot fetishism",[110] and that it appeased malecastration anxiety.[43]
During theSong dynasty, the status of women declined.[43] A common argument is that it was the result of the revival ofConfucianism asneo-Confucianism and that, in addition to promoting the seclusion of women and thecult of widow chastity, it also contributed to the development of foot binding.[111] According toRobert van Gulik, the prominent Song Confucian scholarZhu Xi stressed the inferiority of women as well as the need to keep men and women strictly separate.[112] It was claimed byLin Yutang among others, probably based on an oral tradition, that Zhu Xi also promoted foot binding inFujian as a way of encouraging chastity among women; that by restricting their movement, it would help keep men and women separate.[111] However, historianPatricia Ebrey suggests that this story might be fictitious,[113] and argued that the practice arose so as to emphasize the gender distinction during a period of societal change in the Song dynasty.[43][114]
Some Confucian moralists in fact disapproved of the erotic associations of foot binding, and unbound women were also praised.[115] The Neo-ConfucianCheng Yi was said to be against foot binding and his family and descendants did not bind their feet.[116][117] Modern Confucian scholars such asTu Weiming also dispute any causal link between neo-Confucianism and foot binding,[118] as Confucian doctrine prohibitsmutilation of the body as people should not "injure even the hair and skin of the body received from mother and father". It is argued that such injunction applies less to women, rather it is meant to emphasize the sacred link between sons and their parents. Furthermore, it is argued that Confucianism institutionalized the family system in which women are called upon to sacrifice themselves for the good of the family, a system that fostered such practice.[119]
HistorianDorothy Ko proposed that foot binding may be an expression of the Confucian ideals of civility and culture in the form of correct attire or bodily adornment, and that foot binding was seen as a necessary part of being feminine as well as being civilized. Foot binding was often classified inChinese encyclopedia as clothing or a form of bodily embellishment rather than mutilation. One from 1591, for example, placed foot binding in a section on "Female Adornments" that included hairdos, powders, and ear piercings. According to Ko, the perception of foot binding as a civilized practice may be evinced from aMing dynasty account that mentioned a proposal to "entice [the barbarians] to civilize their customs" by encouraging foot binding among their womenfolk.[120] The practice was carried out only by women on girls, and it served to emphasize the distinction between male and female, an emphasis that began from an early age.[121][122] Anthropologist Fred Blake argued that the practice of foot binding was a form of discipline undertaken by women themselves, and perpetuated by women on their daughters, so as to inform their daughters of their role and position in society, and to support and participate in the neo-Confucian way of being civilized.[119]
Foot binding is considered an oppressive practice against women who were victims of a sexist culture.[123][124] It is also widely seen as a form of violence against women.[125][126][127] Bound feet rendered women dependent on their families, particularly the men, as they became largely restricted to their homes.[128] Thus, the practice ensured that women were much more reliant on their husbands.[129] The early Chinese feministQiu Jin, who underwent the painful process of unbinding her own bound feet, attacked foot binding and other traditional practices. She argued that women, by retaining their small bound feet, made themselves subservient by imprisoning themselves indoors. She believed that women should emancipate themselves from oppression, that girls could ensure their independence through education, and that they should develop new mental and physical qualities fitting for the new era.[130][58] The end of the practice of foot binding is seen as a significant event in the process of female emancipation in China,[131] and a major event in the history ofChinese feminism.[citation needed]
In the late 20th century, some feminists have pushed back against the prevailing Western critiques of foot binding, arguing that the presumption that foot binding was done solely for the sexual pleasure of men denies the agency and cultural influence of women.[132][36]
Some scholars such as Laurel Bossen and Hill Gates reject the notion that bound feet in China were considered more beautiful, or that it was a means of male control over women, a sign of class status, or a chance for women to marry well (in general, bound women did not improve their class position by marriage). Foot binding is believed to have spread from elite women to civilian women and there were large differences in each region. The body and labor of unmarried daughters belonged to their parents, thereby the boundaries between work and kinship for women were blurred.[75] They argued that foot binding was an instrumental means to reserve women to handwork, and can be seen as a way by mothers to tie their daughters down, train them in handwork, and keep them close at hand.[133][134] This argument has been challenged by John Shepherd in his bookFootbinding as Fashion, and shows there was no connection between handicraft industries and the proportion of women bound in Hebei.[135]
Foot binding was common when women could dolight industry, but where women were required to do heavy farm work they often did not bind their feet because it hindered physical work. These scholars argued that the coming of the mechanized industry at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, such as the introduction of industrial textile processes, resulted in a loss of light handwork for women, removing a reason to maintain the practice. Mechanization resulted in women who worked at home facing a crisis.[34] Coupled with changes in politics and people's consciousness, the practice of foot binding disappeared in China forever after two generations.[75][133] More specifically, the 1842Treaty of Nanjing (after theFirst Opium War) opened five cities astreaty ports where foreigners could live and trade. This led to foreign citizens residing in the area, where many proselytized as Christian missionaries. These foreigners condemned many long-standing Chinese cultural practices like foot binding as "uncivilized" — marking the beginning of the end for the centuries-long practice.[96]
It has been argued that while the practice started out as a fashion, it persisted because it became an expression of Han identity after theMongols invaded China in 1279, and later theManchus' conquest in 1644, as it was then practised only by Han women.[clarification needed][121] During the Qing dynasty, attempts were made by the Manchus to ban the practice but failed, and it has been argued the attempts at banning may have in fact led to a spread of the practice among Han Chinese in the 17th and 18th centuries.[136] John Shepherd provides a critical review of the evidence cited for the notion that foot binding was an expression of "Han identity" and rejects this interpretation.[137]
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The bound foot has played a prominent part in many media works, both Chinese and non-Chinese, modern and traditional.[138] These depictions are sometimes based on observation or research and sometimes on rumors or supposition. Sometimes, as in the case ofPearl Buck'sThe Good Earth (1931), the accounts are relatively neutral or empirical, implying respect for Chinese culture.[a] Sometimes, the accounts seem intended to rouse like-minded Chinese and foreign opinion to abolish the custom, and sometimes the accounts imply condescension or contempt for China.[139]
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)mohammedan.(Original from Harvard University)
This article incorporates text fromEncyclopædia of religion and ethics, Volume 8, by James Hastings, John Alexander Selbie, Louis Herbert Gray, a publication from 1916, now in thepublic domain in the United States. This article incorporates text fromThe religions of China: Confucianism and Tâoism described and compared with Christianity, by James Legge, a publication from 1880, now in thepublic domain in the United States.
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