The territory of the Balts, including modern Lithuania, was once inhabited by several Baltic tribal entities (Sudovians,Lithuanians,Curonians,Semigallians,Selonians,Samogitians,Skalvians,Old Prussians (Nadruvians)), as attested by ancient sources and dating from prehistoric times. Over the centuries, and especially under theGrand Duchy of Lithuania, some of these tribes consolidated into the Lithuanian nation, mainly as a defence against the maraudingTeutonic Order andEastern Slavs. The Lithuanian state was formed in theHigh Middle Ages, with different historians dating this variously between the11th andmid-13th centuries.[18]Mindaugas, Lithuania's only crowned king and its first baptised ruler, is generally considered Lithuania's founder.[19] The Lithuanians are the only branch ofBaltic people that managed to create astate entity before themodern era.[20][21][22] During theLate Middle Ages, Lithuania was ravaged by theLithuanian Crusade, which ended only by theTreaty of Melno in 1422. In fact, the crusade persisted after the definiteChristianization of Lithuania in 1387, when Europe's lastpagan people were baptised.[20][23] Simultaneously, the Lithuanian state reached its apogee under the rule ofVytautas the Great (r. 1392–1430), when it ruled the lands between theBaltic andBlack seas. Thereafter, theGrand Duchy of Lithuania continued existing until 1795, however, since theUnion of Lublin in 1569, it maintained its independence in the bi-confederalPolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.[24] In the 16th century the Lithuanian humanists based the national consciousness of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania on the idea of their national singularity or uniqueness and considered the Grand Duchy of Lithuania as an independent country.[25]
There is a current argument that the Lithuanian language was considered non-prestigious enough by some elements in Lithuanian society, meaning that the number of Lithuanian language-speakers decreased withPolonization in thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, as well as aGermanisation of Prussia. The subsequentimperial Russian occupation from 1795 until 1915, with some interpositions such as theFrench invasion of Russia in 1812, theUprisings of 1831 and1863, accelerated this process of Slavicization. While under Russian occupation, Lithuanians enduredRussification, which included the 40-year-longban on public speaking and writing in Lithuanian (see, e.g.,Knygnešiai, the actions against the Catholic Church). In such a context, theLithuanian National Revival began in the 19th century. Some believed at the time that the Lithuanian nation as such, along with its language, would become extinct within a few generations.
Some of the Polish- and Belarusian-speaking persons from the lands of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania expressed their affiliation with the modern Lithuanian nation in the early 20th century, includingMichał Pius Römer,Stanisław Narutowicz,Oscar Milosz andTadas Ivanauskas
"We do not know on whose merits or guilt such a decision was made, or with what we have offended Your Lordship so much that Your Lordship has deservedly been directed against us, creating hardship for us everywhere. First of all, you made and announced a decision about the land ofSamogitia, which is our inheritance and our homeland from the legal succession of the ancestors and elders. We still own it, it is and has always been the same Lithuanian land, because there isone language and the same inhabitants. But since the land of Samogitia is located lower than theland of Lithuania, it is called as Samogitia, because inLithuanian it is called lower land [Žemaitija ]. And theSamogitians callLithuania asAukštaitija, that is, from the Samogitian point of view, a higher land. Also, the people of Samogitia have long called themselves Lithuanians and never – Samogitians, and because of such identity (sic) we do not write about Samogitia in our letter, because everything is one: one country and the same inhabitants."
The territory inhabited by the ethnic Lithuanians has shrunk over centuries; once Lithuanians made up a majority of the population not only in what is nowLithuania, but also in northwesternBelarus, in large areas of the territory of the modernKaliningrad Oblast of Russia, and in some parts of modernLatvia and Poland.[29]
In 1940, Lithuania was invaded and occupied by theSoviet Union, and forced to join it as theLithuanian SSR. The Germans and their allies attacked the USSR in June 1941, and from 1941 to 1944, Lithuania was occupied by Germany. The Germans retreated in 1944, and Lithuania fell under Soviet rule once again. The long-standing communities of Lithuanians in the Kaliningrad Oblast (Lithuania Minor) were almost destroyed as a result.
The Lithuanian nation as such remained primarily in Lithuania, a few villages in northeastern Poland, southernLatvia and also in the diaspora of emigrants. Some indigenous Lithuanians still remain in Belarus and the Kaliningrad Oblast, but their numbers are small compared to what they used to be. Lithuania regained its independence in 1990, and was recognized by most countries in 1991. It became a member of theEuropean Union on May 1, 2004.[citation needed]
Despite being the capital, Vilnius was not the largest city by number of Lithuanians until mid-2000s. According to the 2011 census Vilnius had 337,000 Lithuanians whileKaunas had 316,000.[30]
Russians, even though they are almost as numerous as Poles, are much more evenly scattered. The most prominent community lives in theVisaginas Municipality (52%). Most of them are workers who moved from Russia to work at theIgnalina Nuclear Power Plant. A number of ethnic Russians left Lithuania after the declaration of independence in 1990.
In the past, the ethnic composition of Lithuania has varied dramatically. The most prominent change was the extermination of the Jewish population duringthe Holocaust. Before World War II, about 7.5% of the population was Jewish[citation needed]; they were concentrated in cities and towns and had a significant influence on crafts and business. They were called Litvaks and had a strong culture. The population of Vilnius, which was sometimes nicknamed the northernJerusalem, was about 30% Jewish.[citation needed] Almost all its Jews were killed duringthe Holocaust in Nazi-occupied Lithuania, some 75,000 alone between the years 1941 – 1942,[31] while others later immigrated to the United States and Israel. Now there are about 3,200 Jews living in Lithuania.[32]
Apart from the various religious and ethnic groups currently residing in Lithuania, Lithuanians themselves retain and differentiate between their regional identities; there are 5 historic regional groups:Žemaičiai,Suvalkiečiai,Aukštaičiai,Dzūkai andPrūsai,[33] the last of which is virtually extinct. City dwellers are usually considered just Lithuanians, especially ones from large cities such asVilnius orKaunas.The four groups are delineated according to certain region-specific traditions, dialects, and historical divisions. There are some stereotypes used in jokes about these subgroups, for example, Sudovians are supposedly frugal while Samogitians are stubborn.
Genetic distance of Balto-Slavs by A (atDNA), B (Y-DNA) and C (mtDNA plot).
Since the lateNeolithic period the native inhabitants of the Lithuanian territory have not been replaced by migrations from outside, so there is a high probability that the inhabitants of present-day Lithuania have preserved the genetic composition of their forebears relatively undisturbed by the major demographic movements,[34] although without being actually isolated from them.[35] The Lithuanian population appears to be relatively homogeneous, without apparent genetic differences among ethnic subgroups.[36]
LithuanianAshkenazi Jews display a number of unique genetic characteristics; the utility of these variations has been the subject of debate.[39] One variation, which is implicated in familialhypercholesterolemia, has been dated to the 14th century, corresponding to the establishment of Ashkenazi settlements in response to the invitation extended byVytautas the Great in 1388.[40]
At the end of the 19th century, the average height of males was 163.5 cm (5 ft 4 in) and the average height of females was 153.3 cm (5 ft 0 in). By the end of the 20th century, heights averaged 181.3 cm (5 ft 11 in) for males and 167.5 cm (5 ft 6 in) for females.[41]
Lithuanian settlement extends into adjacent countries that are now outside the modern Lithuanian state. A small Lithuanian community exists in the vicinity ofPuńsk andSejny in theSuwałki area of Poland, an area associated with the Lithuanian writer and clericAntanas Baranauskas.[42]Although most of the Lithuanian inhabitants in the region ofLithuania Minor that formed part ofEast Prussia were expelled when the area was annexed by theSoviet Union as theKaliningrad Oblast, small groups of Lithuanians subsequently settled that area as it was repopulated with new Soviet citizens. Small groups ofLithuanians are still present in Belarus within theGrodno andVitebsk regions.[43]
Apart from the traditional communities in Lithuania and its neighboring countries, Lithuanians have emigrated to other continents during the 19th, 20th and 21st centuries.
Communities in the United States make up the largest part of thisdiaspora; as many as one million Americans can claim Lithuanian descent. Emigration to America began in the 19th century, with the generation calling itself the "grynoriai" (derived from "greenhorn" meaning new and inexperienced).[44] The migration flow was interrupted during the Soviet occupation, when travel and emigration were severely restricted. The largest concentrations ofLithuanian Americans are in theGreat Lakes area and the Northeast;Chicago in particular is noted asthe primary center of the diaspora. Nearly 33,000 Lithuanians have immigrated to the United States since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991.[45]
Lithuanian communities in Canada are among the largest in the world along with the United States (SeeLithuanian Canadian).
Lithuanian communities in Mexico and South America (Argentina,Brazil,Colombia, Uruguay andVenezuela) developed before World War II, beginning in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Currently, there is no longer a flow of emigrants to these destinations, since economic conditions in those countries are not better than those in Lithuania (seeLithuanians in Brazil).
Lithuanian communities were formed in South Africa during the late 19th and 20th century, the majority being Jewish.
Lithuanian communities in other regions of the former Soviet Union were formed during the Soviet occupation; the numbers of Lithuanians inSiberia and Central Asia increased dramatically when a large portion of Lithuanians were involuntarily deported into these areas. Afterde-Stalinization, however, most of them returned. Later, some Lithuanians were relocated to work in other areas of the Soviet Union; some of them did not return to Lithuania, after it became independent.
The Lithuanian communities inUnited Kingdom andIreland began to appear after the restoration of independence to Lithuania in 1990; this emigration intensified after Lithuania became part of theEuropean Union in 2004. London andGlasgow (especially theBellshill andCoatbridge areas ofGreater Glasgow) have long had large Catholic and Jewish Lithuanian populations. The Republic of Ireland probably has the highest concentration of Lithuanians relative to its total population size in Western Europe; its estimated 45,000 Lithuanians (about half of whom are registered) form over 1% of Ireland's total population.
The Lithuanian communities in other countries ofNorthwestern Europe (Norway, Sweden, Denmark, the Netherlands, and Iceland) as well as in Spain are very new and began their growth spurts as Lithuanian was accepted into the EU. In Norway there are 45,415 Lithuanians living in the country and it has in a short time become the second largest ethnic minority in the country, making up 0.85% of Norway's total population, and 4.81% of allforeign residents inNorway.[46] There are around 3,500 Lithuanians inIceland, making around 1% of the total population.
Lithuanian communities in Germany began to appear after World War II. In 1950 they founded the Lithuanian High School inDiepholz, which was a private school for children of Lithuanian refugees. For decades the Lithuanian High School was the only full-time high school outside the Eastern Bloc offering courses in Lithuanian history, language, and culture. In 1954, the Lithuanian Community acquired Rennhof Manor House with its twelve-acre park in the town of Lampertheim-Hüttenfeld. The school was relocated there and still exists today.
The Lithuanian national sport is usually considered to bebasketball (krepšinis), which is popular among Lithuanians in Lithuania as well as in the diasporic communities. Basketball came to Lithuania through theLithuanian-American community in the 1930s. Lithuanian basketball teams were bronze medal winners in the1992,1996, and2000 Summer Olympics.[citation needed]
Joninės (also known asRasos) is a traditional national holiday, celebrated on the summer solstice. It has pagan origins.Užgavėnės (Shrove Tuesday) takes place on the day beforeAsh Wednesday, and is meant to urge the retreat of winter. There are also national traditions for Christian holidays such asEaster andChristmas.[citation needed]
Lithuanian cuisine has much in common with other European cuisines and features the products suited to its cool and moist northern climate: barley, potatoes, rye, beets, greens, and mushrooms are locally grown, and dairy products are one of its specialties. Nevertheless, it has its own distinguishing features, which were formed by a variety of influences during the country's rich history.[citation needed]
Since shared similarities in history and heritage, Lithuanians, Jews and Poles have developed many similar dishes and beverages: dumplings (koldūnai), doughnuts (spurgos), and crepes (lietiniai blynai). German traditions also influenced Lithuanian cuisine, introducing pork and potato dishes, such as potato pudding (kugelis) and potato sausages (vėdarai), as well as thebaroque tree cake known asšakotis. Traditional dishes ofLithuanian Tatars andLithuanian Karaites likeKibinai andčeburekai, that are similar topasty, are popular in Lithuania.[citation needed]
For Lithuanian Americans both traditional Lithuanian dishes ofvirtinukai (cabbage and noodles) andbalandėliai (rolled cabbage) are growing increasingly more popular.[citation needed]
Cepelinai, a stuffed potato creation, is the most popular national dish. It is popular among Lithuanians all over the world. Other national foods include darkrye bread,cold beet soup (šaltibarščiai), andkugelis (a baked potato pudding). Some of these foods are also common in neighboring countries.Lithuanian cuisine is generally unknown outside Lithuanian communities. Most Lithuanian restaurants outside Lithuania are located in cities with a heavy Lithuanian presence.[citation needed]
Lithuanians in the early 20th century were among the thinnest people in the developed countries of the world.[47] In Lithuanian cuisine there is some emphasis on attractive presentation of freshly prepared foods.
Lithuania has been brewingmidus, a type of Lithuanianmead for thousands of years.[48]
Locally brewedbeer (alus),vodka (degtinė), andkvass (gira) are popular drinks in Lithuania. Lithuanian traditional beer of Northern Lithuania,Biržai,Pasvalys regions is well appreciated in Lithuania and abroad.[49]Starka is a part of the Lithuanian heritage, still produced in Lithuania.
"Thus it would seem that the Lithuanians have the best claim to represent the primitiveAryan race, as their language exhibits fewer of those phonetic changes, and of those grammatical losses which are consequent on the acquirement of a foreign speech."[52]
Map of Lithuanian language in the early 21st century
TheProto-Balto-Slavic language branched off directly from Proto-Indo-European, then sub-branched intoProto-Baltic andProto-Slavic. Proto-Baltic branched off into Proto-West Baltic and Proto-East Baltic.[50] Baltic languages passed through aProto-Balto-Slavic stage, from which Baltic languages retain numerous exclusive and non-exclusive lexical, morphological, phonological and accentual isoglosses in common with theSlavic languages, which represent their closest living Indo-European relatives. Moreover, with Lithuanian being so archaic in phonology, Slavic words can often be deduced from Lithuanian by regularsound laws; for example, Lith.vilkas andPolishwilk ←PBSl.*wilkás (cf.PSl.*vьlkъ) ←PIE*wĺ̥kʷos, all meaning "wolf".
When theban against printing the Lithuanian language was lifted in 1904, various European literary movements such asSymbolism,impressionism, andexpressionism each in turn influenced the work of Lithuanian writers. The first period of Lithuanian independence (1918–1940) gave them the opportunity to examine themselves and their characters more deeply, as their primary concerns were no longer political. An outstanding figure of the early 20th century wasVincas Krėvė-Mickevičius, a novelist and dramatist. His many works includeDainavos šalies senų žmonių padavimai (Old Folks Tales ofDainava, 1912) and the historical dramasŠarūnas (1911),Skirgaila (1925), andMindaugo mirtis (The Death ofMindaugas, 1935).Petras Vaičiūnas was another popular playwright, producing one play each year during the 1920s and 1930s.Vincas Mykolaitis-Putinas wrote lyric poetry, plays, and novels, including the novelAltorių šešėly (In the Shadows of the Altars, 3 vol., 1933), a remarkably powerful autobiographical novel.
Keturi vėjai movement started with publication ofThe Prophet of the Four Winds by talented poetKazys Binkis (1893—1942). It was rebellion against traditional poetry. The theoretical basis ofKeturi vėjai initially wasfuturism which arrived through Russia from the West and latercubism,dadaism,surrealism,unanimism, and Germanexpressionism. The most influensive futurist for Lithuanian writers was Russian poetVladimir Mayakovsky.[53]
Oskaras Milašius (1877–1939) is a paradoxical and interesting phenomenon in Lithuanian culture. He never lived in Lithuania but was born and spent his childhood in Cereja (nearMogilev,Belarus) and graduated fromLycée Janson de Sailly in Paris. His longing for his fatherland was more metaphysical. Having to choose between two conflicting countries — Lithuania and Poland — he preferred Lithuania which for him was an idea even more than a fatherland. In 1920 when France recognized the independence of Lithuania, he was appointed officially as Chargé d'Affaires for Lithuania. He published: 1928, a collection of 26 Lithuanian songs; 1930,Lithuanian Tales and Stories; 1933,Lithuanian Tales; 1937,The origin of the Lithuanian Nation.
Catholicism played a significant role in Lithuanian anti-communist resistance under theSoviet Union. Several Catholic priests were leaders of the anti-communist movements, and thousands ofLatin crosses were placed on theHill of Crosses nearŠiauliai, despite its being bulldozed in 1961.[citation needed]
Lithuanian folklore bandKulgrinda performing in Vilnius
Lithuanianfolk music is based around songs (dainos), which include romantic and wedding songs, as well as work songs and archaic war songs. These songs used to be performed either in groups or alone, and in parallelchords orunison.Duophonic songs are common in the renownedsutartinės tradition ofAukštaitija. Another style of Lithuanian folk music is calledrateliai, a kind ofround dance. Instrumentation includeskanklės, a kind ofzither that accompanies sutartinės, rateliai,waltzes,quadrilles andpolkas, andfiddles, (including a bass fiddle called thebasetle) and a kind ofwhistle called theLamzdeliailumzdelis; recent importations, beginning in the late 19th century, including theconcertina,accordion andbandoneon. Sutartinė can be accompanied byskudučiai, a form ofpanpipes played by a group of people, as well as woodentrumpets (ragai anddandytės). Kanklės is an extremely important folk instrument, which differs in the number ofstrings and performance techniques across the country. Other traditional instruments includešvilpas whistle, drums andtabalas (a percussion instrument like agong),sekminių ragelis (bagpipe) and thepūslinė, amusical bow made from a pig's bladder filled with dried peas.[55]
^Cronshaw, Andrew (2000). «Singing Revolutions», Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.) World Music, Vol. 1: Africa, Europe and the Middle East, 16–24, London: Rough Guides.ISBN1-85828-636-0.
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