Acarriage is a two- or four-wheeledhorse-drawn vehicle for passengers. In Europe they were a common mode of transport for the wealthy during theRoman Empire, and then again from around 1600 until they were replaced by the motor car around 1900. They were generally owned by the rich, but second-hand private carriages became common public transport, the equivalent of modern cars used as taxis. Carriagesuspensions are by leather strapping or, on those made in recent centuries, steel springs. There are numerous names for different types. Two-wheeled carriages are usually owner-driven.
Coaches are a special category within carriages. They are carriages with four corner posts and a fixed roof. Two-wheeled war chariots and transport vehicles such as four-wheeledwagons and two-wheeledcarts were forerunners of carriages.[1][2]
In the 21st century, horse-drawn carriages are occasionally used for public parades by royalty and for traditional formal ceremonies. Simplified modern versions are made for tourist transport in warm countries and for those cities where tourists expect open horse-drawn carriages to be provided. Simple metal sporting versions are still made for the sport known as competitive driving.
The wordcarriage (abbreviatedcarr orcge) is fromOld Northern Frenchcariage, to carry in a vehicle.[3] The wordcar, then meaning a kind of two-wheeled cart for goods, also came from Old Northern French about the beginning of the 14th century[3] (probably derived from theLate Latincarro, a car[4]); it is also used forrailway carriages and in the US around the end of the 19th century, early cars (automobiles) were briefly calledhorseless carriages.
Some horse carts found inCeltic graves show hints that their platforms were suspended elastically.[5] Four-wheeled wagons were used inBronze Age Europe, and their form known from excavations suggests that the basic construction techniques of wheel and undercarriage (that survived until the age of the motor car) were established then.[6][7]
First prototyped in the3rd millennium BC, abullock cart is a large two-wheeled cart pulled by oxen or buffalo. It includes a sturdy wooden pole between the oxen, ayoke connecting a pair of oxen, a wooden platform for passengers or cargo, and large steel rimmed wooden wheels.[8][9]
Two-wheeled carriage models have been discovered from theIndus valley civilization including twin horse drawn covered carriages resemblingekka from various sites such asHarappa,Mohenjo Daro andChanhu Daro.[10] The earliest recorded sort of carriage was thechariot, reaching Mesopotamia as early as 1900 BC.[1][failed verification] Used typically for warfare by Egyptians, the Near Easterners and Europeans, it was essentially a two-wheeled light basin carrying one or two standing passengers, drawn by one to two horses. The chariot was revolutionary and effective because it delivered fresh warriors to crucial areas of battle with swiftness.
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First century BCRomans used sprung wagons for overland journeys.[11] It is likely that Roman carriages employed some form of suspension on chains or leather straps, as indicated by carriage parts found in excavations. In 2021 archaeologists discovered the remains of a ceremonial four wheel carriage, a pilentum, near the ancient Roman city ofPompeii. It is thought the pilentum may have been used in ceremonies such as weddings. The find has been described as being "in an excellent state of preservation".[12]
Though the exact date of when the Chinese started to use carriages is largely unknown, early oracle bone inscriptions discovered inHenan province show that the carriage had already developed into many different forms.The earliest archaeological evidence of chariots in China, a chariot burial site discovered in 1933 at Hougang,Anyang inHenan province, dates to the rule of KingWu Ding of the lateShang dynasty (c. 1250 BCE).Oracle bone inscriptions suggest that the western enemies of the Shang used limited numbers of chariots in battle, but the Shang themselves used them only as mobile command-vehicles and in royal hunts.[13]
During the Shang dynasty, members of the royal family were buried with a complete household and servants, including a chariot, horses, and a charioteer. A Shang chariot was often drawn by two horses, but four-horse variants are occasionally found in burials.
Jacques Gernet claims that theZhou dynasty, which conquered the Shang ca. 1046 BCE, made more use of the chariot than did the Shang and "invented a new kind of harness with four horses abreast".[14] The crew consisted of an archer, a driver, and sometimes a third warrior who was armed with a spear ordagger-axe. From the 8th to 5th centuries BCE the Chinese use of chariots reached its peak. Although chariots appeared in greater numbers, infantry often defeated charioteers in battle.
Massed-chariot warfare became all but obsolete after theWarring-States Period (476–221 BCE). The main reasons were increased use of thecrossbow, use of long halberds up to 18 feet (5.49 m) long and pikes up to 22 feet (6.71 m) long, and the adoption of standard cavalry units, and the adaptation ofmounted archery from nomadic cavalry, which were more effective. Chariots would continue to serve as command posts for officers during theQin dynasty (221–206 BCE) and theHan dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), while armored chariots were also used during the Han dynasty against theXiongnu Confederation in theHan–Xiongnu War (133 BC to 89 CE), specifically at theBattle of Mobei (119 BCE).
Before the Han dynasty, the power of Chinese states and dynasties was often measured by the number of chariots they were known to have. A country of a thousand chariots ranked as a medium country, and a country of ten thousand chariots ranked as a huge and powerful country.[15][16]
The medieval carriage was typically a four-wheeled wagon type, with a rounded top ("tilt") similar in appearance to theConestoga Wagon familiar from the United States. Sharing the traditional form of wheels and undercarriage known since the Bronze Age, it very likely also employed the pivoting fore-axle in continuity from the ancient world. Suspension (on chains) is recorded in visual images and written accounts from the 14th century ("chars branlant" or rocking carriages), and was in widespread use by the 15th century.[17] Carriages were largely used by royalty, aristocrats (and especially by women), and could be elaborately decorated and gilded. These carriages were usually on four wheels and were drawn by two to four horses depending on their size and status. Wood and iron were the primary materials needed to build a carriage and carriages that were used by non-royalty were covered by plain leather.
Another form of carriage was thepageant wagon of the 14th century. Historians debate the structure and size of pageant wagons; however, they are generally miniature house-like structures that rest on four to six wheels depending on the size of the wagon. The pageant wagon is significant because up until the 14th century most carriages were on two or three wheels; the chariot, rocking carriage, and baby carriage are two examples of carriages which pre-date the pageant wagon. Historians also debate whether or not pageant wagons were built with pivotal axle systems, which allowed the wheels to turn. Whether it was a four- or six-wheel pageant wagon, most historians maintain that pivotal axle systems were implemented on pageant wagons because many roads were often winding with some sharp turns. Six wheel pageant wagons also represent another innovation in carriages; they were one of the first carriages to use multiple pivotal axles. Pivotal axles were used on the front set of wheels and the middle set of wheels. This allowed the horse to move freely and steer the carriage in accordance with the road or path.
One of the great innovations in carriage history was the invention of the suspended carriage or thechariot branlant (though whether this was a Roman or medieval innovation remains uncertain). The "chariot branlant" of medieval illustrations was suspended by chains rather than leather straps as had been believed.[18][19] Suspension, whether on chains or leather, might provide a smoother ride since the carriage body no longer rested on the axles, but could not prevent swinging (branlant) in all directions. It is clear from illustrations (and surviving examples) that the medieval suspended carriage with a round tilt was a widespread European type, referred to by any number of names (car, currus, char, chariot).[citation needed]
In 14th century England carriages, like the one illustrated in the Luttrell Psalter, would still have been a quite rare means of aristocratic transport, and they would have been very costly until the end of the century. They would have had four six-spoke six-foot high wheels that were linked by greased axles under the body of the coach, and did not necessarily have any suspension. The chassis was made from oak beam and the barrel shaped roof was covered in brightly painted leather or cloth. The interior would include seats, beds, cushions, tapestries and even rugs. They would be pulled by four to five horses.[20]
Under KingMathias Corvinus (1458–90), who enjoyed fast travel, the Hungarians developed fast road transport, and the town ofKocs betweenBudapest andVienna became an important post-town, and gave its name to the new vehicle type.[21][22] The earliest illustrations of the Hungarian "Kochi-wagon" do not indicate any suspension, a body with high sides of lightweight wickerwork, and typically drawn by three horses in harness. Later models were considerably lighter and famous for a single horse being able to draw many passengers.[23]
The Hungarian coach spread across Europe, initially rather slowly, in part due toIppolito d'Este of Ferrara (1479–1520), nephew of Mathias' queenBeatrix of Aragon, who as a very junior Archbishopric ofEsztergom developed a taste for Hungarian riding and took his carriage and driver back to Italy.[24] Then rather suddenly, in around 1550, the "coach" made its appearance throughout the major cities of Europe, and the new word entered the vocabulary of all their languages.[25] However, the new "coach" seems to have been a fashionable concept (fast road travel for men) as much as any particular type of vehicle, and there is no obvious technological change that accompanied the innovation, either in the use of suspension (which came earlier), or the adoption of springs (which came later). As its use spread throughout Europe in the late 16th century, the coach's body structure was ultimately changed, from a round-topped tilt to the "four-poster" carriages that became standard everywhere by c.1600.[17]
The coach had doors in the side, with an iron step protected by leather that became the "boot" in which servants might ride. The driver sat on a seat at the front, and the most important occupant sat in the back facing forwards. The earliest coaches can be seen atVeste Coburg, Lisbon, and the Moscow Kremlin, and they become a commonplace in European art. It was not until the 17th century that further innovations with steel springs and glazing took place, and only in the 18th century, with better road surfaces, was there a major innovation with the introduction of the steelC-spring.[26]
Many innovations were proposed, and some patented, for new types of suspension or other features. It was only from the 18th century that changes to steering systems were suggested, including the use of the 'fifth wheel' substituted for the pivoting fore-axle, and on which the carriage turned. Another proposal came fromErasmus Darwin, a young English doctor who was driving a carriage about 10,000 miles a year to visit patients all over England. Darwin found two essential problems or shortcomings of the commonly used light carriage or Hungarian carriage. First, the front wheels were turned by a pivoting front axle, which had been used for years, but these wheels were often quite small and hence the rider, carriage and horse felt the brunt of every bump on the road. Secondly, he recognized the danger of overturning.
Apivoting front axle changes a carriage's base from a rectangle to a triangle because the wheel on the inside of the turn is able to turn more sharply than the outside front wheel. Darwin suggested a fix for these insufficiencies by proposing a principle in which the two front wheels turn (independently of the front axle) about a centre that lies on the extended line of the back axle. This idea was later patented in 1818 asAckermann steering. Darwin argued that carriages would then be easier to pull and less likely to overturn.
Carriage use in North America came with the establishment of European settlers. Early colonial horse tracks quickly grew into roads especially as the colonists extended their territories southwest. Colonists began using carts as these roads and trading increased between the north and south. Eventually, carriages or coaches were sought to transport goods as well as people. As in Europe, chariots, coaches and carriages were a mark of status. The tobacco planters of the South were some of the first Americans to use the carriage as a form of human transportation. As the tobacco farming industry grew in the southern colonies so did the frequency of carriages, coaches and wagons. Upon the turn of the 18th century, wheeled vehicle use in the colonies was at an all-time high. Carriages, coaches and wagons were being taxed based on the number of wheels they had. These taxes were implemented in the South primarily as the South had superior numbers of horses and wheeled vehicles when compared to the North. Europe, however, still used carriage transportation far more often and on a much larger scale than anywhere else in the world.
Carriages and coaches began to disappear as use of steam propulsion began to generate more and more interest and research. Steam power quickly won the battle against animal power as is evident by a newspaper article written in England in 1895 entitled "Horseflesh vs. Steam".[27][28] The article highlights the death of the carriage as the main means of transportation.
Today, carriages are still used for day-to-day transport in the United States by some minority groups such as theAmish. They are also still used in tourism as vehicles forsightseeing in cities such asBruges, Vienna,New Orleans, andLittle Rock, Arkansas.
The most complete working collection of carriages can be seen at theRoyal Mews in London where a large selection of vehicles is in regular use. These are supported by a staff ofliveried coachmen, footmen andpostilions. The horses earn their keep by supporting the work of the Royal Household, particularly during ceremonial events. Horses pulling a large carriage known as a "covered brake" collect the Yeoman of the Guard in their distinctive red uniforms from St James's Palace for Investitures at Buckingham Palace; High Commissioners or Ambassadors are driven to their audiences with the King and Queen inlandaus; visiting heads of state are transported to and from official arrival ceremonies and members of the Royal Family are driven in Royal Mews coaches during Trooping the Colour, the Order of the Garter service at Windsor Castle and carriage processions at the beginning of each day of Royal Ascot.
Carriages may be enclosed or open, depending on the type.[29] The top cover for the body of a carriage is called thehead orhood, and is sometimes flexible and designed to be folded back when desired. Such a folding top is called abellows top orcalash. Ahoopstick forms a light framing member for this kind of hood. The top, roof or second-story compartment of a coach was called animperial. A closed carriage may have side windows calledquarter lights (British) as well as windows in the doors, hence a "glass coach". On the forepart of an open carriage, a screen of wood or leather called adashboard intercepts water, mud or snow thrown up by the heels of the horses. The dashboard or carriage top sometimes has a projecting sidepiece called awing (British). Afoot iron orfootplate may serve as a carriage step.
A carriage driver sits on abox orperch, usually elevated and small. When at the front, it is known as adickey box, a term also used for a seat at the back for servants. Afootman might use a small platform at the rear called afootboard or a seat called arumble behind the body. Some carriages have a small fold-down seat called ajump seat. Some seats had an attached backrest called alazyback.
The shafts of a carriage were calledlimbers in English dialect.Lancewood, a tough elastic wood of various trees, was often used especially for carriage shafts. Aholdback, consisting of an iron catch on the shaft with a looped strap, enables a horse to back or hold back the vehicle. The end of the tongue of a carriage is suspended from the collars of the harness by a bar called theyoke. At the end of atrace, a loop called acockeye attaches to the carriage.
In some carriage types, the body is suspended by several leather straps calledthoroughbraces orbraces which serve as springs.
Beneath the carriage body is theundergear orundercarriage (or simplycarriage), consisting of the running gear and chassis.[30] The wheels and axles, in distinction from the body, are therunning gear. The wheels revolve upon bearings or a spindle at the ends of a bar or beam called anaxle oraxletree. Most carriages have either one or two axles. On a four-wheeled vehicle, the forward part of the running gear, orforecarriage, is arranged to permit the front axle to turn independently of the fixed rear axle. In some carriages adropped axle, bent twice at a right angle near the ends, allows for a low body with large wheels. A guard called adirtboard keeps dirt from the axle arm.
Several structural members form parts of the chassis supporting the carriage body. The fore axletree and the splinter bar above it (supporting the springs) are united by a piece of wood or metal called afutchel, which forms a socket for the pole that extends from the front axle. For strength and support, a rod called thebackstay may extend from either end of the rear axle to the reach, the pole or rod joining the hind axle to the forward bolster above the front axle.
A skid called adrag,dragshoe,shoe orskidpan retards the motion of the wheels. A London patent of 1841 describes one such apparatus: "An iron-shod beam, slightly longer than the radius of the wheel, is hinged under the axle so that when it is released to strike the ground the forward momentum of the vehicle wedges it against the axle". The original feature of this modification was that instead of the usual practice of having to stop the carriage to retract the beam and so lose useful momentum the chain holding it in place is released (from the driver's position) so that it is allowed to rotate further in its backwards direction, releasing the axle. A system of "pendant-levers" and straps then allows the beam to return to its first position and be ready for further use.[31]
A catch or block called atrigger may be used to hold a wheel on an incline.
A horizontal wheel or segment of a wheel called afifth wheel sometimes forms an extended support to prevent the carriage from tipping; it consists of two parts rotating on each other about the kingbolt or perchbolt above the fore axle and beneath the body. A block of wood called aheadblock might be placed between the fifth wheel and the forward spring.
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The basic parts of a wheel are nave (or hub), spokes, felloes (felly) and tyre (tire).[32][33]
In a wooden-wheel, thenave is the central block. It acts as thehub. One end of each spoke is set into the nave with amortise and tenon joint. In older wheels, the nave had a 6-inch sleeve that fit over the axle to keep the wheel from wobbling; it required frequent greasing. Modern wheels usemetal bearings in the hub.[33]: 197 [32]: 232
Spokes are the pieces that fit into the nave or hub at the center, radiate outwards, and join into the felloes at the outer edge.[33]: 251 [32]: 233
In a wooden-wheel, afelloe is one of several curved pieces of wood that are pieced together in a circle to make the rim of a wheel. They are fitted onto the outer ends of the spokes. Sometimes spelled "felly".[33]: 119 [32]: 231 The number of felloes required to make a circle varied by region, era and size of wheel—with a minimum of two half-circles of bent wood, to multiple felloes per wheel with at least two spokes per felloe.[32]: 83 Felloes are part of woodjoinery and are only seen in wooden wheels, not modern metal carriage wheels.
Therim is the outer edge of a wheel, although some refer to the tyre as rim.[32]: 233
Thetyre ortire is a protective strip that goes outside the felloes. Tyres were make of iron or steel, usually as a hoop and fitted hot around the rim. As it cooled and shrank it tightened the joints of the spokes-to-felloes and spokes-to-nave, strengthening the wheel and making it more rigid.[33]: 158 Metal tyres are very noisy on hard road surfaces, so many carriages wheels were made with solid rubber tyres fitted into a metal channel.[33]: 71, 162, 298
Modern sport carriages such as themarathon carriage have hard rubber tires and all metal wheels. Some lightweight carriages, such as thesulky, have metal "bicycle spokes" and pneumatic tires.
Due to age or dry climate, a wooden wheel would shrink and metal hoop tyres would become loose. Routinely, the hoop would be removed by awheelwright, 'shrunk', heated and refitted to make the wheel tight again. Tools to shrink the hoops were called "tire upsetters" or "tire shrinkers".[34][35]
Originally, the wordfittings referred to metal elements such as bolts and brackets,furnishings leaned more to leatherwork and upholstery or referred to metal buckles on harness, andappointments were things brought to a carriage but not part of it, however all of these words have blended together over time and are often used interchangeably to mean the smaller components or parts of a carriage or equipment.[33]: 7 All the shiny metal fittings on a vehicle should be one color, such as brass (yellow) or nickel (white), and should match the buckle color of any harness used with the vehicle.[33]: 130 Early bodies ofhorseless carriages were constructed by coachmakers using the same parts used in carriages and coaches, and some horse carriage terminology has survived in modern automobiles.
"We must not forget that the early railway carriages were basically mail-coaches on iron wheels, and the early motor-cars differed from the horse-drawn wagonette or coupe only in so far that there was no horse tied to it." —László Tarr inThe History of the Carriage[1]: 295
The carriage driver is called awhip. A person whose business was to drive a carriage was acoachman. A person dressed inlivery is called afootman. An attendant on horseback called anoutrider. Acarriage starter directed the flow of vehicles taking on passengers at the curbside. Ahackneyman hired out horses and carriages.
Upper-class people of wealth and social position, those wealthy enough to keep carriages, were referred to ascarriage folk orcarriage trade.
Carriage passengers often used alap robe as a blanket or similar covering for their legs, lap and feet.
A horse especially bred for carriage use by appearance and stylish action is called acarriage horse; one for use on a road is aroad horse. One such breed is theCleveland Bay, uniformlybay in color, of good conformation and strong constitution. Horses were broken in using a bodiless carriage frame called abreak orbrake.
Acarriage dog orcoach dog is bred for running beside a carriage.
A roofed structure that extends from the entrance of a building over an adjacent driveway and that shelters callers as they get in or out of their vehicles is known as acarriage porch orporte cochere. An outbuilding for a carriage is acoach house, which was often combined with accommodation for agroom or other servants.
Alivery stable kept horses and usually carriages for hire. A range of stables, usually withcarriage houses (remises) and living quarters built around a yard, court or street, is called amews.
A kind of dynamometer called apeirameter indicates the power necessary to haul a carriage over a road or track.
Driving is a competitive equestrian sport. Manyhorse shows have driving competitions for a particular style of driving, breed of horse, or type of vehicle. Show vehicles are usually carriages,carts, orbuggies and, occasionally,sulkies orwagons. Modern high-technology carriages are made purely for competition, often calledmarathon carriages.
Internationally, there is intense competition in the all-round test of driving calledcombined driving or horse-driving trials, an equestrian discipline regulated by theInternational Federation for Equestrian Sports (FEI) with national organizations representing each member country.World championships are conducted in alternate years, including single-horse, horse pairs and four-in-hand championships. TheWorld Equestrian Games, held at four-year intervals, also includes a four-in-hand competition. Forpony drivers, theWorld Combined Pony Championships are held every two years and include singles, pairs and four-in-hand events.
Numerous varieties of horse-drawn carriages existed, Arthur Ingram'sHorse Drawn Vehicles since 1760 in Colour lists 325 types with a short description of each. By the early 19th century one's choice of carriage was only in part based on practicality and performance; it was also a status statement and subject to changing fashions.
