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| Heir apparent | William, Prince of Wales |
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Themonarchy of Australia is a key component ofAustralia's form of government, by which ahereditary monarch serves as the country'ssovereign andhead of state.[1] It is aconstitutional monarchy, modelled on theWestminster system ofparliamentary democracy, while incorporating features unique to theconstitution of Australia.
The present monarch isKing Charles III, who has reigned since 8 September 2022.[a] The monarch is represented at the federal level by thegovernor-general (currentlySamantha Mostyn[4]), in accordance with the Australian constitution[5] andletters patent from his mother and predecessor, QueenElizabeth II.[6] Similarly, in each of theAustralian states the monarch is represented by agovernor (assisted by a lieutenant-governor; generally the Chief Justice of the state's supreme court), according to theAustralia Act and respective letters-patent and state constitutions.[7] The monarch appoints the governor-general on theadvice of theprime minister and the state governors on the advice of the respectivepremiers.[8][9] These are the only mandatory constitutional functions of the monarch of Australia.[10]
Australian constitutional law provides that the person who ismonarch of the United Kingdom will also be the monarch of Australia.[11][12] Since the 1940s at the latest, the Australian monarchy has been a distinct office and in that capacity, they act exclusively upon the advice of Australian state and federal ministers. Australia is one of theCommonwealth realms, 15 independent countries that share the sameperson as monarch and head of state.[13]
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The monarch of Australia is the same person as the monarch of the 14 otherCommonwealth realms within the 56-memberCommonwealth of Nations.[13] However, each realm is independent of the others, the monarchy in each being distinct from the rest.[14][15] Effective with theAustralia Act 1986, the British government cannot advise the monarch on any matters pertinent to Australia; on all matters of the Australian Commonwealth, the monarch is advised solely by Australian federalministers of state.[16] Likewise, on all matters relating to any Australian state, the monarch is advised by the ministers of that state, tendered via the premier.[7]
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Courts and academics have proposed several dates on which the Crown of Australia separated from the Crown of the United Kingdom.[17] These include 1926, when atan Imperial Conference it was announced that governors-general would no longer represent the government of the United Kingdom or 1930, when atanother Imperial Conference it was clarified that the monarch would be advised directly by dominion ministers.Anne Twomey argues for this later date at the latest.[18] Others have suggested the Crowns separated once Australia became fully independent, with dates suggested including 1931 (when the UKStatute of Westminster was passed), 1939 or 1942 (due toStatute of Westminster Adoption Act, passed in 1942 with retrospective effect to 1939) or 1986 (when theAustralia Acts severed the last possibilities of UK institutions changing Australian laws).[19] However, members of the High Court have indicated that the separation of the Crowns was complete by at least 1948, as seen by the creation ofAustralian citizenship laws.[20]
It is unclear however whether for each state there is also a distinct Crown, separate from the Crown of Australia. In other words, the monarch may also be king of Victoria, etc. for each of the states. Prior to the passage of theAustralia Act, the monarch acted as sovereign of the United Kingdom at the state level. With that Act's passage, either independent Crowns emerged for each of the states or the Crown of Australia transformed into a federal Crown in which the monarch receives advice from both state and commonwealth ministers in exercising their respective powers. Such a distinction may be relevant if either Australia or an individual state wished tobecome a republic, as with separate crowns, a federal republic would not necessarily abolish the Crown at a state level.[21]
The formal title of the current monarch isKing[b]Charles the Third,by the Grace of God King of Australia and His other Realms and Territories,Head of the Commonwealth.[23][24][25][c]
Prior to 1953, the title of the Australian monarch had simply been the same asthat in the United Kingdom. A change in the title resulted from occasional discussion among Commonwealth prime ministers and an eventual meeting in London in December 1952, at which Australia's officials stated their preference for a format for QueenElizabeth II's title that would name all the realms. However, they stated they would also acceptElizabeth II (by the Grace of God) of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, [name of realm], and all of her other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth (Defender of the Faith).[34][35] The latter composition was adopted, despite some objections from the South African and Canadian governments. The sovereign's title in all her realms thus kept mention of the United Kingdom, but, for the first time, also separately mentioned Australia and the other Commonwealth realms. The passage of theRoyal Style and Titles Act 1953 by the Parliament of Australia put these recommendations into law.[36]
In 1973 theWhitlam government replaced the 1953 royal styles Act, with Whitlam arguing that the inclusion and position of Elizabeth's title in the UK made the title not "sufficiently distinctively Australian" and that the phrase "Defender of the Faith" had "no historical or constitutional relevance in Australia".[37] A new Royal Titles and Styles Bill that removed these references was passed by the federal Parliament.[d] The governor-general,Sir Paul Hasluck, reservedroyal assent for the monarch, as governor-general SirWilliam McKell had done with the 1953 Royal Titles and Styles Bill to allow Elizabeth to give her assent in person, which she did at Government House in Canberra on 19 October 1973.[41]
At the state level, Western Australia and South Australia have independently legislated the monarch's title to be the same as the Commonwealth title.[42][43] There is limited reference to the monarch's title in the other states, however parliamentarians have used expressions such as "Queen of [state]" and "Queen in right of [state]" during parliamentary debates.[44] In 1973, Queensland sought to pass legislation to include Queensland specifically in the monarch's title.[45] The Queensland parliament passed legislation seeking an advisory opinion from thePrivy Council as to whether they had the legislative power to do, however this legislation was declared unconstitutional by the High Court.[46] In seeking this title, the Queensland government's motivation was to dissuade the British from accepting the Whitlam government's advice that all of the British government's then authority over the states should be transferred to the federal government.The dismissal of the Whitlam government in 1975 removed the impetus for the title change and no further steps were taken in the matter.[47]
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Royal succession is determined by a mix of common law, British law that continues to apply in Australia, and more recent Australian federal and state statutes. These entail that succession follows the eldest non-adopted child of the current monarch (primogeniture), with the restriction that an heir must be in communion with theChurch of England and not aRoman Catholic to ascend the throne.
These rules have evolved over centuries. The British statutes, theBill of Rights 1689 and theAct of Settlement 1701 first limited succession to legitimate descendants ofSophia, Electress of Hanover and imposed religious requirements in the context of theGlorious Revolution. These laws were received alongside all other British laws to Australia when Australia was settled. Considering the colonial status of the individual colonies and later the federated Australia, it was accepted at the time that these laws could only be changed by the UK Parliament.[48]
Later, Australia and the other dominions gained greater legislative independence with the passage of theStatute of Westminster 1931 (adopted by Australia in 1942).[49] While this allowed the dominions to pass laws that conflicted with UK laws, to ensure that succession laws remained consistent, the preamble noted that it would be in keeping with each Commonwealth realm's constitutional practice that any succession changes would require the consent of the parliaments of each realm.[49][48]
As Australia had not yet adopted theStatute of Westminster by the time of theabdication of Edward VIII in 1936, the UKDeclaration of Abdication Act 1936 applied automatically without the need for Australia's consent. However, the Australian federal Parliament did pass a resolution of assent to the changes as a matter of courtesy.[50]
The most recent reforms to the succession occurred following thePerth Agreement in 2011, in which all the Commonwealth realms agreed to changes including the removal of a preference towards male heirs and the repeal of theRoyal Marriages Act 1772 (which amongst other things prevented the monarch from marrying a Roman Catholic). As the Australian federal Parliament does not have a head of power over succession, it required a referral legislation from each of the states.[51][52] TheNorthern Territory also added its request and concurrence, although this was not constitutionally required.[53] The federal legislation finally become law on 24 March 2015[54][55] and as Australia was the last realm to the make the required changes, the act took effect on 26 March 2015 (BST), parallel to other realms' laws.[56]
Upon ademise of the Crown (the death orabdication of a sovereign), it is customary for the accession of the new monarch to be publiclyproclaimed by the governor-general on behalf of theFederal Executive Council, which meets at Government House after the accession.[57] Parallel proclamations are made by the governors in each state.[58][59] Regardless of any proclamations, the late sovereign's heir immediately and automatically succeeds, without any need for confirmation or further ceremony. Following an appropriate period ofmourning, the monarch is alsocrowned at a coronation ceremony in the United Kingdom; though, this is not necessary for a sovereign to reign, being primarily a symbolic event.[60] For example,Edward VIII was never crowned, yet was undoubtedly king during his short time on the throne. After an individual ascends the throne, he or she typically continues to reign until death.
The monarch legally cannot unilaterallyabdicate; the only Australian monarch to do so,Edward VIII, did so following the passage of British legislation. While the UK has passedregency acts from 1936 onwards to prepare for a situation when the monarch is incapacitated, the dominions did not agree for these acts to be extended into domestic law as it was felt that governors-general could exercise all the powers a regent would need to exercise.[61]
Australia does not fund the King or wider royal family for any activities taken outside of Australia, either towards personal income or to support royal residences outside of Australia. When monarch visits Australia, their expenses are paid for by the Australian Government.[62] However, the Australian Government does pay a salary to the governor-general and for the upkeep of the official vice-regal residences in the country.[63]
In 2018, a day-long visit toVanuatu byCharles (then the Prince of Wales), escorted byAustralian Minister for Foreign Affairs,Julie Bishop, in between a tour of Queensland and the Northern Territory, was paid for by the Australian government.[64] Charles III's2024 Australian royal tour cost $640,000, Elizabeth II's2011 royal tour $2,690,000 and her2006 tour $1,450,000.[65]
The governor-general has two official residences:Government House inCanberra (commonly known asYarralumla) andAdmiralty House inSydney.
WhenHMYBritannia was in Australian waters and in use by the monarch of Australia, it was not available to British officials for meetings or promotions.[66]
The monarch is the locus of manyoaths of allegiance. Various employees of the Crown are required by law to recite this oath before taking their posts, such as all members of theCommonwealth Parliament and of the state and territory parliaments, as well as most magistrates, judges, police officers, and justices of the peace. This is in reciprocation to the sovereign's coronation oath, taken most recently by Charles III who promised "to govern the Peoples of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland [and] your other Realms ... according to their respective laws and customs".[67][68]
The prime minister, ministers and parliamentary secretaries alsomake an oath or affirmation of office on their appointment to a particular ministry, which traditionally included a promise of allegiance to the monarch.[69] However, the wording of this oath or affirmation is not written into law and beginning with swearing in ofPaul Keating, allLabor prime ministers have dropped the reference to the sovereign.[70][71][69]
Theoath of citizenship similarly contained a statement of allegiance to the reigning monarch until 1994, when a pledge of allegiance to Australia and itsvalues was introduced. However the concept of allegiance to the monarch remains important constitutionally, especially in the context of determining whether a person is an "alien" for the purposes ofsection 51(xix).[72][73][74]
Key features of Australia's system of government include its basis on a combination of written and unwritten rules, comprising the sovereign,governors, andgovernor-general.[75] TheConstitution does not mention the termhead of state.[e] According to the Parliament of Australia website, Australia's head of state is the monarch and itshead of government is the prime minister, with powers limited by both law and convention for government to be carried on democratically.[76] However, the governor-general's website states that the office holder is in practice Australia's head of state.[77] A leading textbook on Australian constitutional law formulates the position thus: "The Queen, as represented in Australia by the governor-general, is Australia's head of state."[78]
Additionally, Queensland[79] and South Australia[80] describe the monarch as the head of state for their particular state. New South Wales[81] and Western Australia[82] on the other hand describe their governors as their respective heads of state, whilst Tasmania[83] and Victoria[84] state that the governor "exercises the constitutional power" of the head of state.[85]
While current official sources use the descriptionhead of state for the monarch, in the lead up to thereferendum on Australia becoming a republic in 1999,Sir David Smith proposed an alternative explanation that the governor-general is head of state. This view has some support within the groupAustralians for Constitutional Monarchy.[86]
Australia has awritten constitution based on theWestminster model of government, implementing afederal system and a distinctseparation of powers. It gives Australia aparliamentary system of government, wherein the role of the sovereign and governor-general is both legal and practical. The sovereign of Australia is represented in the federal sphere by the governor-general—appointed by the monarch on the advice of theprime minister of Australia—and in each state by agovernor—appointed by the monarch upon the advice of the relevant state premier.
Section 61 of the Constitution vests theexecutive power of the Commonwealth in the King, to be exercisable by the governor-general. The governor-general is appointed by the King on the advice of the prime minister—the only role the monarch must perform personally.[9] The governor-general in turn (usually following elections) appoints the individual with or most likely to obtain the confidence of theHouse of Representatives to be prime minister.[87] Other ministers are appointed by the governor-general on the advice of the prime minister, a subset of which form thecabinet. These ministers then advise the governor-general on the exercise of executive power, either directly or through theFederal Executive Council. Executive power includes powers belonging to theroyal prerogative, which includes the power to declare war and enter into treaties.[88]
As the King and governor-general must in general act on advice, their roles are primarily symbolic and cultural, acting as a symbol of the legal authority under which all governments and agencies operate. As an example, members of various executive agencies and judges are formally appointed by the governor-general, not the government of the day. However, the governor-general does also has certain reserve powers, which are powers that they may exercise in the absence of or contrary to advice.[89][90][91] Their most prominent use was during the1975 constitutional crisis when governor-general SirJohn Kerr dismissed the government ofGough Whitlam on the basis that his government had failed to secure the passage of supply.[92]
Apart from the appointment of the governor-general, the monarch has also been personally involved in issuingletters-patent for the creation ofAustralian honours.[93][94] The monarch also has the power to dismiss the governor-general. This power was highlighted during the 1975 constitutional crises. During the crisis there was a concern about a "race to the palace" where the governor-general may have tried to dismiss the prime minister before the prime minister sought to advise the monarch to dismiss the governor-general or vice-versa. Following the dismissal, Whitlam and the speaker of the house each separately contacted the palace to reverse the governor-general's actions, but the palace advised that only the governor-general, not the Queen, had the power to appoint the prime minister.
Parliament consists of the sovereign, theSenate and theHouse of Representatives.[95][96][97][98] Their authority in the House of Representatives is represented by theMace of the House (which also represents the authority of the house itself and itsSpeaker).[99][100] However, neither the sovereign nor the governor-general participate in the legislative process save for the granting ofroyal assent. Further, the constitution outlines that the governor-general alone is responsible for summoning,proroguing, anddissolving the federal parliament.[101]
All laws in Australia, except those in theAustralian Capital Territory (ACT), are enacted only with the granting of royal assent, done by the governor-general, relevant state governor, oradministrator in the case of theNorthern Territory (NT). This is done in the federal context by the governor-general signing two copies of the bill.[102][103] If the law is one in which takes effect onproclamation, the governor-general will also make this proclamation to which theGreat Seal of Australia is then affixed in authentication of the correspondingletters patent.[104][105] The governor-general may reserve a billfor the King's (or Queen's) pleasure; that is withhold his consent to the bill and present it to the sovereign for their personal decision. Under the constitution, the sovereign also has the power to disallow a bill within one year of the governor-general having granted royal assent.[106] The purpose of this section was originally to allow the UK parliament to supervise the workings of the Commonwealth parliament, as this power would only be exercised by the monarch as advised by their British ministers.[107] However, the power was never actually used and it is very unlikely that it will be used in the future.[10]
Traditionally, the monarch is known as thefount of justice.[108][109] However, he does not personally rule in judicial cases, meaning that judicial functions are normally performed only in the monarch's name.[108] In most jurisdictions, criminal offences are legally deemed to be offences against the sovereign and proceedings forindictable offences are brought in the sovereign's name in the form ofThe King [or Queen] against [Name] (typically shortened toR v [Name] standing forRex for King orRegina for Queen).[110] However, offences in Western Australia and Tasmania are brought in the name of the particular state.[111][112] Civil lawsuits against the Crown in its public capacity (that is, lawsuits against the government) are permitted due to statute.[113][114] In international cases, as asovereign and under established principles ofinternational law, the monarch of Australia is not subject to suit in foreign courts without his express consent. Theprerogative of mercy lies with the monarch, and is exercised in the state jurisdictions by the governors.[115][116]
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In accordance with theAustralia Act 1986, the sovereign has the power to appoint, on advice tendered by the relevantstate premier, agovernor in each of the Australian states, who themselves appoint executive bodies, as well as people to fillcasual Senate vacancies, if the relevant state parliament is not in session. The state governors continue to serve as the direct representatives of the monarch, in no way subordinate to the governor-general, and they carry out on his behalf all of the monarch's constitutional and ceremonial duties in respect of their respective state. TheNorthern Territory and theAustralian Capital Territory are constitutionally subordinate to the federal government, with anadministrator appointed by the governor-general on the advice of thefederal minister for Territories taking the place of a state governor in the Northern Territory. Like their governor counterparts, they largely are required to act on the advice of theNorthern Territory government. The Australian Capital Territory has no equivalent position, with legislative and executive power devolved directly from the federal government to theACT Legislative Assembly and theACT Executive.
The monarch or the governor also forms part ofstate parliaments as per respectivestate constitutions. However, in case ofSouth Australia, neither the monarch nor the governor forms part of parliament, which only consists of two elected houses. However, bills passed by theParliament of South Australia and all other state parliaments must be assented to by the governor in the name and on the behalf of the monarch.[117]
All the powers and functions of the monarch in relation to the making of an act by a state parliament are exercisable only by the governor of that state. However, if the monarch is present in a state in person, he or she can exercise any of those powers and functions.[117]
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The sovereign and their family have participated in events such as various centennials and bicentennials;Australia Day; the openings of Olympic and other games; award ceremonies;D-Day commemorations; anniversaries of the monarch's accession; and the like.
Other royals have participated in ceremonies organised by or involving Australia and other Commonwealth nations abroad, such asCharles III, then Prince Charles, at the 2015Anzac Day ceremonies atGallipoli, the Duke of Edinburgh at the Anzac Day service in Hyde Park, London in 2024, or the Duke of Sussex's attendance at anAustralia House reception for Australian athletes in the 2014Invictus Games.[118][119][120]
Members of the royal family have also made private donations to Australian charities or causes, such as when Elizabeth II made a private donation to theAustralian Red Cross Appeal after theBlue Mountains bushfires in 2009 and Prince William to the Australian Red Cross during floods in 2023.[121][122]
Section 68 of theAustralian Constitution says: "The command in chief of the naval and military forces of the Commonwealth is vested in the governor-general as the Queen's [monarch's] representative."[123] In practice, however, the governor-general does not play any part in the Australian Defence Force's command structure other than following the advice of theMinister for Defence in the normal form of executive government.[124] All personnel of the Australian Defence Force swear anOath of Allegiance (or affirmation) to the Australian Monarch where they pledge to "resist his (or her) enemies."[125]
Australian naval vessels bear the prefixHis Majesty's Australian Ship (HMAS) and many organisational groupings of the defence force (such as theRoyal Australian Infantry Corps,Royal Australian Air Force and theRoyal Australian Engineers) carry the "royal" prefix.[126]
Members of the royal family have presided over military ceremonies, including Trooping the Colour ceremonies, inspections of the troops, and anniversaries of key battles. When Elizabeth II was in Canberra, she laid wreaths at theAustralian War Memorial. In 2003, Elizabeth acted in her capacity as Australian monarch when she dedicated the Australian War Memorial inHyde Park, London.[1] In 2024, Charles III as part of his tour of Sydney and Canberra, laid wreaths at the Australian War Memorial, as well as presiding over aRoyal Fleet Review of the Royal Australian Navy, in Sydney.[127]
Monarchs of Australia (or their spouse in the case of Elizabeth II)[128] are appointed to the highest ranks in each of the branches of the Defence Force. In 2024, Charles III was appointed to the Honorary Ranks ofadmiral of the fleet of the Royal Australian Navy,field marshal of the Australian Army, andmarshal of the Royal Australian Air Force, by the governor-general of Australia.[129] These ranks have always been held by members of the royal family, with the exceptions of field marshals SirWilliam Birdwood and SirThomas Blamey.
Additionally, some members of the royal family areColonels-in-Chief of Australian regiments, including: theRoyal Regiment of Australian Artillery;Royal Australian Army Medical Corps; theRoyal Australian Armoured Corps and theRoyal Australian Corps of Signals, amongst many others.
Royal symbols are the visual and auditory identifiers of the Australian monarchy. The main symbol of the monarchy is the sovereign. The monarch's portrait has appeared on all Australian coins, with King Charles III's portrait in use for newly minted coins since 2024.[130] The monarch's image also previously appeared on most Australiandefinitive stamps until 1973. Due to complaints by royalists about this change, the annual Queen's Birthday stamp was introduced in 1980.[131] The monarch has also previously appeared on the lowest denomination of all Australian banknotes, with Queen Elizabeth II's portrait currently appearing on thefive-dollar banknote.[132][133] However theReserve Bank has announced that this design will be replaced one that depicts Indigenous Australian culture and history instead of the new monarch.[134]
Acrown is depicted on the Queensland and Victorian state badges (which are included on theAustralian coat of arms,[135]) and onvarious medals and awards.[136] For example, the crown's presence on the insignia of the Order of Australia represents the monarch's role as Head of the Order.[137] The sovereign is further both mentioned in and the subject of songs and loyal toasts.[138] Australia inherited theroyal anthem "God Save the King" (alternatively, "God Save the Queen" in the reign of a female monarch) from the United Kingdom. It was the national anthem of Australia until 1984, and has since been retained as the country's royal anthem, its use generally restricted to official occasions where the monarch or a member of the royal family is present.[139][140]
His MajestyThe King's Flag for Australia, approved on 30 August 2024 by Charles III, signifies his presence and is displayed when Charles is in Australia.[141] The flag was first used during the 2024 royal visit. The flag is used in the same way as theRoyal Standard of the United Kingdom. Where practical, when it is flown on or outside a building, no other flag should be flown with it and is flown when the King is visiting Australia from all buildings, cars, boats or aircraft that he occupies. The flag features the six quarters of the Commonwealth Coat of Arms, surrounded by an ermine border which represents the federation.[142]
As in other Commonwealth realms, theKing's Official Birthday is apublic holiday and, in Australia, is observed on the second Monday in June in allstates and territories, except Queensland and Western Australia. In Queensland, it is celebrated on the first Monday in October, and in Western Australia it is usually the last Monday of September or the first Monday of October.[143] Celebrations are mainly official, including the AustralianBirthday Honours list and military ceremonies.[144][145]
Popular royal symbolism emerged during the reign ofQueen Victoria, as a means of encouraging loyalty to the wider British Empire. The Crown symbolised the "imagined community of a global British people" with prime ministerJoseph Lyons calling it "the great unifying element in the British Empire". Queen Elizabeth II stated in 1954 during her Australian tour that "the Crown is the human link between all the people who owe allegiance to me, an allegiance of mutual love and respect and never of compulsion". To Australia's Indigenous peoples, the Crown has symbolised the dispossession of their land and the violation oftheir sovereignty, with the claiming of the east coat of Australia by James Cook done in the name ofKing George III. However, the Crown has also symbolised protection of Indigenous rights, with several petitions made to the monarch by Indigenous leaders protesting rights violations.[146][147][148] The continued presence of royal symbols has been argued to act as a "social construction of reality", which reinforces their perception as a "positive role in national life". Such symbolism has been criticised as akin topropaganda, that acts to counter arguments against the royals' social and political power.[149]
Until its new constitution went into force in 1962, theAnglican Church of Australia was part of theChurch of England. Its titular head was consequently the monarch, in his or her capacity asSupreme Governor of the Church of England.[150] However, unlike in England,Anglicanism was never established as astate religion in Australia.[151]
The development of the Australian monarchy into the independent entity it is today began in 1770, when CaptainJames Cook, in the name of, and under instruction from,King George III, claimed the east coast of Australia.[152][153] Colonies were eventually founded across the continent,[154][155] all of them ruled by themonarch of the United Kingdom, upon the advice of his or her British ministers, theSecretary of State for the Colonies, in particular. In 1901 the six coloniesunited to form the Commonwealth of Australia, following the assent ofQueen Victoria to theCommonwealth of Australia Constitution Act. However, this did not change the relationship of the monarch to the new nation, with her powers (such as the appoint of governors, governors-general and others set out in the Constitution) exercised in accordance with the advice of British ministers.[16]
This situation continued until after theFirst World War, where in response to calls from some Dominions for a re-evaluation of their status under the Crown after their sacrifice and performance in the conflict,[78]: 110 theBalfour Declaration of 1926 was issued following a series ofImperial conferences. The statement provided that the United Kingdom and the Dominions were to be "autonomous communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate to one another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common allegiance to the Crown". TheRoyal and Parliamentary Titles Act 1927, an Act of theWestminster Parliament, was the first indication of a shift in the law, which ensured the independence of the office.[156] Another move to independence occurred in 1930, when the British government agreed that the Australian Cabinet would advise the sovereign directly on the choice of governor-general. The Crown was further separated by theStatute of Westminster 1931,[157]adopted by Australia in 1942 (retroactive to 3 September 1939).[158]
TheCurtin Labor government appointedPrince Henry, Duke of Gloucester, as governor-general during the Second World War. Curtin hoped the appointment might influence the British to despatch men and equipment to thePacific War, and the selection of the brother ofKing George VI reaffirmed the important role of the Crown to the Australian nation at that time.[159] Queen Elizabeth II became the first reigning monarch to visit Australia in 1954, greeted by huge crowds across the nation. In 1967, Elizabeth's son, Charles III (then Prince Charles), attended school inGeelong Grammar School inCorio, Victoria.[160] Her grandsonPrince Harry undertook a portion of his gap-year living and working in Australia in 2003.[161]
The sovereign did not possess a title unique to Australia until the Australian Parliament enacted theRoyal Styles and Titles Act in 1953,[36] after the accession of Elizabeth to the throne, and giving her the title ofQueen of the United Kingdom, Australia and Her other Realms and Territories. However, Elizabeth only acted as Queen of Australia at the federal level. At the state level, Elizabeth acted as Queen of the United Kingdom with state laws still subject to theColonial Laws Validity Act, which meant that UK laws overrode them when inconsistent. While the federal government adopted theStatute of Westminster in 1942, which removed the legislative restrictions of theColonial Laws Validity Act, the states specifically asked to be excluded from the agreement. This was because they felt their interests were better protected whilst they were under the authority of the UK, which provided a buffer against the increasing power of the federal government.
Thus, the British government could still – at least in theory, if not with some difficulty in practice – legislate for the Australian states, and the governors in the states were appointed by and represented the sovereign of the United Kingdom, not that of Australia.[162] As late as 1976, the British ministry advised the monarch to refuseColin Hannah another term asQueensland's governor, after seriously considering unilaterally dismissing him due his breach of political impartiality, despite the recommendation of the then stateBjelke-Petersen government for his nomination.[163][164] Additionally, court cases from state supreme courts could be appealed directly to theJudicial Committee of the Privy Council in London, thereby bypassing the Australian High Court which otherwise could not be appealed in the privy council for federal matters since 1968 and for state matters since 1975.[165][166] In 1973 reference to the United Kingdom was removed by theRoyal Style and Titles Act. Henceforth, the monarch would be styled uniquely asQueen of Australia. Elizabeth signed her assent to the Act at Government House, Canberra that year, leading Senior Vice President of the Labor Party,Jack Egerton, to remark to her, "They tell me, love, you've been naturalised."[167][168] It was with the passage of theAustralia Act 1986, which repealed theColonial Laws Validity Act and abolished appeals of state cases to London, that the final vestiges of the British monarchy in Australia were removed, leaving a distinct Australian monarchy for the nation. The view in theRepublic Advisory Committee's report in 1993 was that if, in 1901, Victoria, as Queen-Empress, symbolised the British Empire of which all Australians were subjects, all of the powers vested in the monarch under Australia's Constitution were now exercised on the advice of the Australian government.[16]
The1999 Australian republic referendum was defeated by 54.4 per cent of the populace, despite polls showing that the majority supported becoming a republic.[169] Many commentators have argued that disagreement between republicans as to the preferred model for a republic (most notably over whether the president should be appointed or directly elected) was a key factor in the "no" result.[170][171] The referendum followed the recommendation of a1998 Constitutional Convention called to discuss the issue of Australia becoming a republic. The Queen visited Australia a year after the referendum and stated that "I respect and accept the outcome of the referendum. In the light of the result last November, I shall continue faithfully to serve as Queen of Australia under the Constitution to the very best of my ability".[172][173]
Elizabeth II, the longest-serving monarch,died on 8 September 2022, and was succeeded by her son, Charles III. Thecoronation of Charles III and Camilla took place on 6 May 2023. In October 2024, Charles III became the first reigning King of Australia tovisit the country.[174]
Various polls have been conducted on public support for the monarchy since at least 1953. These have produced a variety of responses, depending on the specific framing of the question. A peer review analysis of survey data published in theAustralian Journal of Political Science in 1993 found that republican sentiment had slowly and stably increased from the 1950s and rose rapidly in the late 1980s and early 1990s such that certain polls indicated a majority or plurality republican support.[175] A follow up analysis published in 2016 found that support for the monarchy reached a low of 34 per cent in 1998 following the 1992annus horribilis, before rising significantly to around 50% by 2016.[176]
Following the accession of King Charles in September 2022, the number of polls on the republic issue increased,producing a range of responses.
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Whereas prime ministerJulia Gillard stated that she would like to see Australia become a republic, she, on 21 October 2011, at a reception in the presence of the Queen at Parliament House, asserted that the monarch is "a vital constitutional part of Australian democracy and would only ever be welcomed as a beloved and respected friend".[177] AfterKevin Rudd was appointed as prime minister, he affirmed that a republic was still a part of his party's platform and stated his belief that the debate on constitutional change should continue.[178]
Gillard had, during her time as prime minister, propounded that an appropriate time for Australia to become a republic would be after the end of the reign of Queen Elizabeth II. Following Elizabeth's death, the Prime Minister,Anthony Albanese, said in an interview he wanted Australia to have an appointed head of state, but he did not have a timetable for a referendum, did not commit to advising one take place during his time as prime minister, and postulated that no vote should happen until demand rose from thegrassroots.[179] Albanese had earlier stated he would, out of respect for Elizabeth, merely refrain from having the governor-general call a referendum before the next election for the House of Representatives.[180][181]
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Republicans have dismissed the large public turnouts during royal tours as "the cult of celebrity".[182] However, followingPrince William's andCatherine's visit to the Blue Mountains after devastating bush fires in 2014, historian Jane Connors opined that "there is still a sense that having the royal family come to see you is more healing and significant than just having anyone come to see you", citing comments made by some who had come to the area while the royal couple were present.[183] Academic Holly Randell-Moon has criticised royal visits as reinforcing the legitimacy ofwhite settler possession againstIndigenous sovereignty, withcelebrity responses to the royals "obscuring the racial and religious power" of monarchy.[184]
Former governor-generalMichael Jeffery argued that the constitutional monarchy has been key to Australia's political stability and lack of civil wars.[185]
The idea of a uniquely Australian monarch, resident in Australia, has been voiced occasionally. The proposition was first published in 1867.[186] It was later reiterated byAlan Atkinson in his 1993 bookThe Muddle Headed Republic,[187] by Harry Meklonian in 2009,[188] and by Richard Hughes in 2017.[189] In a similar vein,Waleed Aly suggested in 2022 replacing the monarch with a life appointedIndigenous "First Elder".[190] Another possibility, offered in 2009 by an American constitutional lawyer, would be to crown someone in the line of succession to the Australian throne (such asPrince Andrew andPrince Harry), but who is not expected to become monarch by the present rules of succession.[188]
| Portrait | Regnal name (Birth–Death) Royal dynasty | Reign | Full name | Consort | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Start | End | ||||
 | Victoria (1819–1901) House of Hanover | 1 January 1901 | 22 January 1901 | Alexandrina Victoria | Widowed |
| Governor-general:John Hope, 7th Earl of Hopetoun | |||||
| Prime minister:Edmund Barton | |||||
 | Edward VII (1841–1910) House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha | 22 January 1901 | 6 May 1910 | Albert Edward | Alexandra of Denmark |
| Governors-general: John Hope, 7th Earl of Hopetoun,Hallam Tennyson, 2nd Baron Tennyson,Henry Northcote, 1st Baron Northcote,William Ward, 2nd Earl of Dudley | |||||
| Prime ministers: Edmund Barton,Alfred Deakin,Chris Watson,George Reid,Alfred Deakin,Andrew Fisher,Alfred Deakin | |||||
.jpg) | George V (1865–1936) House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (until 1917) House of Windsor (after 1917) | 6 May 1910 | 20 January 1936 | George Frederick Ernest Albert | Mary of Teck |
| Governors-general: William Ward, 2nd Earl of Dudley,Thomas Denman, 3rd Baron Denman,Sir Ronald Ferguson,Henry Forster, 1st Baron Forster,John Baird, 1st Baron Stonehaven,Sir Isaac Isaacs | |||||
| Prime ministers:Andrew Fisher,Joseph Cook,Andrew Fisher,Billy Hughes,Stanley Bruce,James Scullin,Joseph Lyons | |||||
.jpg) | Edward VIII (1894–1972) House of Windsor | 20 January 1936 | 11 December 1936 | Edward Albert Christian George Andrew Patrick David | None |
| Governors-general: Sir Isaac Alfred Isaacs,Alexander Hore-Ruthven, 1st Earl of Gowrie | |||||
| Prime minister:Joseph Lyons | |||||
.jpg) | George VI (1895–1952) House of Windsor | 11 December 1936 | 3 September 1939 | Albert Frederick Arthur George | Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon |
| Governors-general: Alexander Hore-Ruthven, 1st Earl of Gowrie | |||||
| Prime ministers: Joseph Lyons,Sir Earle Page,Robert Menzies | |||||
The date of separation of the Australian Crown from the British Crown is a matter of debate (seeemergence of a separate Crown above), however the process most likely occurred in the 1930s to 1940s, and was complete by at least 1948.
Australia is a representative democracy and a constitutional monarchy. It is also a federation of states. Many features of Australia's system of government are based on the Westminster system.
Under the Australian Constitution, the only action performed by The King is the appointment of the Governor-General (on the advice of the Australian Prime Minister)
The King's only necessary constitutional function is to appoint the Governor-General, and in doing this the King acts as advised by the Australian Prime Minister. The Constitution gives the King the power to disallow an Australian Act of Parliament, but this has never been done and it is extremely unlikely that it would ever be done.
The Constitution itself is contained in clause 9 of the British Act. The first eight clauses of the British Act are commonly referred to as the 'covering clauses'. They contain mainly introductory, explanatory and consequential provisions. For example, covering clause 2 provides that references to 'the Queen' (meaning Queen Victoria, who was British sovereign at the time the British Act was enacted) shall include references to Queen Victoria's heirs and successors. Following the death of Queen Elizabeth II in September 2022, references in the Constitution to 'the Queen' now include King Charles III.
What Whitlam did was remove the words 'United Kingdom' and 'Defender of the Faith' from the 1953 style ... He had wanted also to remove the words 'by the Grace of God', but the Queen would not hear of it.
The Northern Territory's constitutional position means that it is not constitutionally necessary for the Territory to request or consent to the Commonwealth enactment, however the government considers it desirable to ensure so far as possible, that arrangements in place in the Northern Territory mirror those in place between the Commonwealth and the states.
The Governor-General of Australia is His Majesty The King's representative. In practice, they are Australia's Head of State and have a range of constitutional and ceremonial duties.
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