As a result of their size, Komodo dragons areapex predators, and dominate theecosystems in which they live. Komodo dragons hunt and ambush prey includinginvertebrates, birds, andmammals. Komodo dragons' group behavior in hunting is exceptional in the reptile world. The diet of Komodo dragons mainly consists ofJavan rusa (Rusa timorensis), though they also eat considerable amounts ofcarrion. Komodo dragons also occasionally attack humans.
Mating begins between May and August, and the eggs are laid in September; as many as 20 eggs are deposited at a time in an abandonedmegapode nest or in a self-dug nesting hole. The eggs are incubated for seven to eight months, hatching in April, when insects are most plentiful. Young Komodo dragons are vulnerable and dwell in trees to avoid predators, such ascannibalistic adults, which young Komodo dragons also try to repel by rolling in feces. They take 8 to 9 years to mature and are estimated to live up to 30 years.
Komodo dragons were first recorded by Western scientists in 1910. Their large size and fearsome reputation make them popular zoo exhibits. In the wild, their range has been reduced by human encroachment and is likely to contract further from the effects ofclimate change; hence, they are listed asEndangered by theIUCN Red List. They are protected underIndonesian law, andKomodo National Park was founded in 1980 to aid protection efforts.
Taxonomy
Skull of a Komodo dragon
Komodo dragons were first documented by Europeans in 1910, when rumors of a "land crocodile" reached Lieutenant van Steyn van Hensbroek of theDutch colonial administration.[5] Widespread notoriety came after 1912, whenPeter Ouwens, the director of theZoological Museum of Bogor,Java, published a paper on the topic after receiving a photo and a skin from the lieutenant, as well as two other specimens from a collector.[4]
The first two live Komodo dragons to arrive in Europe were exhibited in the Reptile House atLondon Zoo when it opened in 1927.[6]Joan Beauchamp Procter made some of the earliest observations of these animals in captivity and she demonstrated their behaviour at a scientific meeting of theZoological Society of London in 1928.[7]
The Komodo dragon was the driving factor for an expedition toKomodo Island by W. Douglas Burden in 1926. After returning with 12 preserved specimens and two live ones, this expedition provided the inspiration for the 1933 movieKing Kong.[8] It was also Burden who coined the common name "Komodo dragon".[9] Three of his specimens were stuffed and are still on display in theAmerican Museum of Natural History.[10]
The Dutch island administration, realizing the limited number of individuals in the wild, soon outlawed sport hunting and heavily limited the number of individuals taken for scientific study. Collecting expeditions ground to a halt with the occurrence of World War II, not resuming until the 1950s and 1960s, when studies examined the Komodo dragon's feeding behavior, reproduction, and body temperature. At around this time, an expedition was planned in which a long-term study of the Komodo dragon would be undertaken. This task was given to the Auffenberg family, who stayed on Komodo Island for 11 months in 1969. During their stay,Walter Auffenberg and his assistant Putra Sastrawan captured and tagged more than 50 Komodo dragons.[11]
Research from the Auffenberg expedition proved enormously influential in raising Komodo dragons in captivity.[12] Research after that of the Auffenberg family has shed more light on the nature of the Komodo dragon, with biologists such as Claudio Ciofi continuing to study the creatures.[13]
Etymology
The Komodo dragon, as depicted on the 50 rupiahcoin, issued by Indonesia
The Komodo dragon is also sometimes known as theKomodo monitor or theKomodo Island monitor in scientific literature,[14] although these names are uncommon. To the natives ofKomodo Island, it is referred to asora,buaya darat ('land crocodile'), orbiawak raksasa ('giant monitor').[15][5]
Fossils from acrossQueensland demonstrate that the Komodo dragon was once present in Australia, with fossils spanning from theEarly Pliocene (~3.8 million years ago) to theMiddle Pleistocene,[1] with the youngest confirmed records of the species in Australia dating to at latest 330,000 years ago. In Australia, it coexisted with the even larger monitor speciesVaranus priscus also known as megalania, the largest terrestrial lizard ever.[22] The oldest records of the Komodo dragon on Flores date to around 1.4 million years ago, during theEarly Pleistocene.[23] Additionally, Pleistocene fossils ofVaranus found in Java and Timor may belong to the Komodo dragon.[24]
Description
AdultJuvenile
In the wild, adult Komodo dragons usually weigh around 70 kg (150 lb), although captive specimens often weigh more.[25] According toGuinness World Records, an average adult male will weigh 79 to 91 kg (174 to 201 lb) and measure 2.59 m (8.5 ft), while an average female will weigh 68 to 73 kg (150 to 161 lb) and measure 2.29 m (7.5 ft).[26] The largest verified specimen in captivity was 3.13 m (10 ft 3 in) long and weighed 166 kg (366 lb), including its undigested food.[5] The largest wild specimen had a length 3.04 m (10 ft), asnout-vent length (SVL) 1.54 m (5 ft 1 in) and a mass of 81.5 kg (180 lb) excluding stomach contents.[27][28] The heaviest reached a mass of 87.4 kg (193 lb).[27] The study noted that weights greater than 100 kg (220 lb) were possible but only after the animal had consumed a large meal.[27][28]
Closeup of the skin
The Komodo dragon has a tail as long as its body, as well as about 60 frequently replaced, serrated teeth that can measure up to 2.5 cm (1 in) in length. Itssaliva is frequently blood-tinged because its teeth are almost completely covered bygingival tissue that is naturally lacerated during feeding.[29] It also has a long, yellow, deeplyforked tongue.[5] Komodo dragon skin is reinforced by armoured scales, which contain tiny bones calledosteoderms that function as a sort of naturalchain-mail.[30][31] The only areas lacking osteoderms on the head of the adult Komodo dragon are around the eyes, nostrils, mouth margins, andparietal eye, a light-sensing organ on the top of the head. Where lizards typically have one or two varying patterns or shapes of osteoderms, komodos have four: rosette, platy, dendritic, and vermiform.[32] This rugged hide makes Komodo dragon skin a poor source of leather. Additionally, these osteoderms become more extensive and variable in shape as the Komodo dragon ages, ossifying more extensively as the lizard grows. These osteoderms are absent in hatchlings and juveniles, indicating that the natural armor develops as a product of age and competition between adults for protection in intraspecific combat over food and mates.[33]
Komodo dragons have ziphodont teeth, which are defined as teeth that are laterally flattened, recurved, and with serrated tooth crowns where the serrations have adentine core and a very thinenamel outer layer. This is the same type of dentition observed in many extincttheropod dinosaurs.[34][35] The teeth of theinsectivorous juveniles in contrast are barely recurved, with fewer and less well-developed serrations that lack dentine cores.[36]
Teeth. Note the orange, iron-enriched enamel serrations.
A 2024 study published inNature Ecology & Evolution found that Komodo dragons have orange,iron-enriched coatings on their tooth serrations and tips, as an adaptation for maintaining the sharp cutting edges. This feature is also observed to a lesser degree in a few otherAustralasian to Asian monitor species, though notably absent in a few other species from that range.[35]
Teeth are quickly replaced every 40 days, while maintaining up to 5 replacement teeth for each tooth position at any given time. This high rate of replacement and large number of replacement teeth is similar to that of thecrocodile monitor. Many other monitor species as well asChinese crocodile lizards andbeaded lizards only have 1-2 replacement teeth behind each tooth position.[36]
Senses
Komodo dragon using its tongue to sample the air
As with other varanids, Komodo dragons have only a single ear bone, thestapes, for transferring vibrations from thetympanic membrane to thecochlea. This arrangement means they are likely restricted to sounds in the 400 to 2,000hertz range, compared to humans who hear between 20 and 20,000 hertz.[5][37] They were formerly thought to bedeaf when a study reported no agitation in wild Komodo dragons in response to whispers, raised voices, or shouts. This was disputed whenLondon Zoo employee Joan Procter trained a captive specimen to come out to feed at the sound of her voice, even when she could not be seen.[38]: 52
The Komodo dragon can see objects as far away as 300 m (980 ft), but because its retinas only containcones, it is thought to have poor night vision. It can distinguish colours, but has poor visual discrimination of stationary objects.[39]
As with many other reptiles, the Komodo dragon primarily relies on its tongue to detect,taste, andsmellstimuli, with thevomeronasal sense using theJacobson's organ, rather than using the nostrils.[40] With the help of a favorable wind and its habit of swinging its head from side to side as it walks, a Komodo dragon may be able to detect carrion from 4–9.5 km (2.5–5.9 mi) away.[39] It only has a fewtaste buds in the back of its throat.[40] Its scales, some of which are reinforced with bone, havesensory plaques connected to nerves to facilitate its sense of touch. The scales around the ears, lips, chin, and soles of the feet may have three or more sensory plaques.[29]
Behaviour and ecology
Males fighting
The Komodo dragon prefers hot and dry places and typically lives in dry, open grassland, savanna, and tropical forest at low elevations. As anectotherm, it is most active in the day, although it exhibits somenocturnal activity. Komodo dragons are solitary, coming together only to breed and eat. They are capable of running rapidly in brief sprints up to 20 km/h (12 mph), diving up to 4.5 m (15 ft), and climbing trees proficiently when young through use of their strong claws.[25] To catch out-of-reach prey, the Komodo dragon may stand on its hind legs and use its tail as a support.[38]: 144 As it matures, its claws are used primarily as weapons, as its great size makes climbing impractical.[29]
For shelter, the Komodo dragon digs holes that can measure from 1 to 3 m (3.3 to 9.8 ft) wide with its powerful forelimbs and claws.[41] Because of its large size and habit of sleeping in these burrows, it is able to conserve body heat throughout the night and minimise its basking period the morning after.[42] The Komodo dragon stays in the shade during the hottest part of the day and hunts in the afternoon.[9] These special resting places, usually located on ridges with cool sea breezes, are marked with droppings and are cleared of vegetation. They serve as strategic locations from which to ambush deer.[43]
Diet
Komodo dragon on Rinca feeding on awater buffalo corpse
Komodo dragons areapex predators.[44] They are carnivores; although they have been considered as eating mostly carrion,[45] they will frequently ambush live prey with a stealthy approach. When suitable prey arrives near a dragon's ambush site, it will suddenly charge at the animal at high speeds and go for the underside or the throat.[29]
Komodo dragons do not deliberately allow the prey to escape with fatal injuries but try to kill prey outright using a combination of lacerating damage and blood loss. They have been recorded as killing wild pigs within seconds,[46] and observations of Komodo dragons tracking prey for long distances are likely misinterpreted cases of prey escaping an attack before succumbing to infection. Most prey attacked by a Komodo dragon reputedly suffer from said sepsis and will later be eaten by the same or other lizards.[47]
Komodo dragons eat by tearing large chunks of flesh and swallowing them whole while holding the carcass down with their forelegs. For smaller prey up to the size of a goat, their loosely articulated jaws, flexible skulls, and expandable stomachs allow them to swallow prey whole. The undigested vegetable contents of a prey animal's stomach and intestines are typically avoided.[43] Copious amounts of red saliva the Komodo dragons produce help to lubricate the food, but swallowing is still a long process (15–20 minutes to swallow a goat). A Komodo dragon may attempt to speed up the process by ramming the carcass against a tree to force it down its throat, sometimes ramming so forcefully that the tree is knocked down.[43] A small tube under the tongue that connects to the lungs allows it to breathe while swallowing.[29]
After eating up to 80% of its body weight in one meal,[44] it drags itself to a sunny location to speed digestion, as the food could rot and poison the dragon if left undigested in its stomach for too long. Because of their slow metabolism, large dragons can survive on as few as 12 meals a year.[29] After digestion, the Komodo dragon regurgitates a mass of horns, hair, and teeth known as the gastric pellet, which is covered in malodorous mucus. After regurgitating the gastric pellet, it rubs its face in the dirt or on bushes to get rid of the mucus.[29]
Komodo excrement has a dark portion, which is stool, and a whitish portion, which isurate, the nitrogenous end-product of their digestion process
The eating habits of Komodo dragons follow a hierarchy, with the larger animals generally eating before the smaller ones. The largest male typically asserts his dominance and the smaller males show their submission by use of body language and rumbling hisses. Dragons of equal size may resort to "wrestling". Losers usually retreat, though they have been known to be killed and eaten by victors.[48][49]
The Komodo dragon's diet varies depending on stage of growth. Young Komodo dragons will eat insects, birds and bird's eggs and small reptiles, while larger Komodo dragons (typically over 20 kg (44 lb)) prefer largeungulate prey, such asJavan rusa deer,wild pigs andwater buffalo.[50][51] Occasionally, they attack and bite humans. Sometimes they consume human corpses, digging up bodies from shallow graves.[38]: 84 This habit of raiding graves caused the villagers of Komodo to move their graves from sandy to clay ground, and pile rocks on top of them, to deter the lizards.[43] Dwarf species ofStegodon (a proboscidean related to living elephants) are suggested to have been a primary prey item of the Komodo dragon during thePleistocene, prior to the introduction of their modern ungulate prey, which were only introduced to the islands in theHolocene, around 10-7,000 years ago.[52][53]
The Komodo dragon drinks by sucking water into its mouth viabuccal pumping (a process also used for respiration), lifting its head, and letting the water run down its throat.[46]
Saliva
Although previous studies proposed that Komodo dragon saliva contains a variety of highly septic bacteria that would help to bring down prey,[48][54] research in 2013 suggested that the bacteria in the mouths of Komodo dragons are ordinary and similar to those found in other carnivores. Komodo dragons have good mouth hygiene. To quote Bryan Fry: "After they are done feeding, they will spend 10 to 15 minutes lip-licking and rubbing their head in the leaves to clean their mouth ... Unlike people have been led to believe, they do not have chunks of rotting flesh from their meals on their teeth, cultivating bacteria." They do have a slashing bite, which normally includes a dose of their neurotoxin venom and anticoagulant saliva.[55] Komodo dragons do not wait for prey to die and track it at a distance, asvipers do; observations of them hunting deer, boar and in some cases buffalo reveal that they kill prey in less than half an hour.[56]
The observation of prey dying of sepsis would then be explained by the natural instinct ofwater buffalos, which are not native to the islands where the Komodo dragon lives, to run into water after escaping an attack. The warm, faeces-filled water would then cause the infections. The study used samples from 16 captive dragons (10 adults and six neonates) from three US zoos.[56]
Antibacterial immune factor
Researchers have isolated a powerful antibacterialpeptide, VK25, from theblood plasma of Komodo dragons. Based on their analysis of this peptide, they have synthesized a short peptide dubbed DRGN-1 and tested it againstmultidrug-resistant (MDR) pathogens. Preliminary results of these tests show that DRGN-1 is effective in killing drug-resistant bacterial strains and even some fungi. It has the added observed benefit of significantly promoting wound healing in both uninfected and mixedbiofilm infected wounds.[57]
In late 2005, researchers at theUniversity of Melbourne speculated that theperentie (Varanus giganteus), other species of monitors, andagamids may be somewhat venomous. The team believes that the immediate effects of bites from these lizards were caused by mild envenomation. Bites on human digits by alace monitor (V. varius), a Komodo dragon, and aspotted tree monitor (V. timorensis) all produced similar effects: rapid swelling, localised disruption of blood clotting, and shooting pain up to the elbow, with some symptoms lasting for several hours.[58]
In 2009, the same researchers published further evidence demonstrating that Komodo dragons possess a venomous bite.MRI scans of a preservedskull showed the presence of twoglands in the lower jaw. The researchers extracted one of these glands from the head of a terminally ill dragon in theSingapore Zoological Gardens, and found it secreted several different toxicproteins. The known functions of these proteins include inhibition of blood clotting, lowering of blood pressure, muscle paralysis, and the induction of hypothermia, leading to shock and loss of consciousness in envenomated prey.[59][60] As a result of the discovery, the previous theory that bacteria were responsible for the deaths of Komodo victims was disputed.[61]
Other scientists have stated that this allegation of venom glands "has had the effect of underestimating the variety of complex roles played by oral secretions in the biology of reptiles, produced a very narrow view of oral secretions and resulted in misinterpretation of reptilian evolution." According to these scientists "reptilian oral secretions contribute to many biological roles other than to quickly dispatch prey." These researchers concluded, "Calling all in this clade venomous implies an overall potential danger that does not exist, misleads in the assessment of medical risks, and confuses the biological assessment of squamate biochemical systems."[62] Evolutionary biologist Schwenk says that even if the lizards have venom-like proteins in their mouths they may be using them for a different function, and he doubts venom is necessary to explain the effect of a Komodo dragon bite, arguing that shock and blood loss are the primary factors.[63][64] As of 2023, no clear unambiguous evidence of Komodo dragon bites being venomous has been presented.[65]
Reproduction
Komodo dragons mating
Mating occurs between May and August, with the eggs laid in September.[5][66] During this period, males fight over females and territory by grappling with one another upon their hind legs, with the loser eventually being pinned to the ground. These males may vomit or defecate when preparing for the fight.[38] The winner of the fight will then flick his long tongue at the female to gain information about her receptivity.[44] Females areantagonistic and resist with their claws and teeth during the early phases of courtship. Therefore, the male must fully restrain the female during coitus to avoid being hurt. Other courtship displays include males rubbing their chins on the female, hard scratches to the back, and licking.[67] Copulation occurs when the male inserts one of hishemipenes into the female'scloaca.[39] Komodo dragons may be monogamous and form "pair bonds", a rare behavior for lizards.[38]
Female Komodos lay their eggs from August to September and may use several types of locality; in one study, 60% laid their eggs in the nests oforange-footed scrubfowl (a moundbuilder ormegapode), 20% on ground level and 20% in hilly areas.[68] The females make many camouflage nests/holes to prevent other dragons from eating the eggs.[69] Nests typically house one female, however a study found evidence of two females occasionally occupying the same den.[70] Clutches contain an average of 20 eggs, which have an incubation period of 7–8 months.[38] Hatching is an exhausting effort for the neonates, which break out of their eggshells with anegg tooth that falls off before long. After cutting themselves out, the hatchlings may lie in their eggshells for hours before starting to dig out of the nest. They are born quite defenseless and are vulnerable to predation.[48] Sixteen youngsters from a single nest were on average 46.5 cm long and weighed 105.1 grams.[68]
Young Komodo dragons spend much of their first few years in trees, where they are relatively safe from predators, including cannibalistic adults, as juvenile dragons make up 10% of their diets.[38] The habit of cannibalism may be advantageous in sustaining the large size of adults, as medium-sized prey on the islands is rare.[71] When the young approach a kill, they roll around in faecal matter and rest in the intestines of eviscerated animals to deter these hungry adults.[38] Komodo dragons take approximately 8 to 9 years to mature, and may live for up to 30 years.[66]
A Komodo dragon atLondon Zoo named Sungai laid a clutch of eggs in late 2005 after being separated from male company for more than two years. Scientists initially assumed she had been able to storesperm from her earlier encounter with a male, anadaptation known assuperfecundation.[72] On 20 December 2006, it was reported that Flora, a captive Komodo dragon living in theChester Zoo in England, was the second known Komodo dragon to have laid unfertilised eggs: she laid 11 eggs, and seven of them hatched, all of them male.[73] Scientists atLiverpool University in England performed genetic tests on three eggs that collapsed after being moved to an incubator, and verified Flora had never been in physical contact with a male dragon. After Flora's eggs' condition had been discovered, testing showed Sungai's eggs were also produced without outside fertilization.[74] On 31 January 2008, theSedgwick County Zoo inWichita, Kansas, became the first zoo in the Americas to documentparthenogenesis in Komodo dragons. The zoo has two adult female Komodo dragons, one of which laid about 17 eggs on 19–20 May 2007. Only two eggs were incubated and hatched due to space issues; the first hatched on 31 January 2008, while the second hatched on 1 February. Both hatchlings were males.[75][76]
Komodo dragons have theZW chromosomalsex-determination system, as opposed to themammalian XY system. Male progeny prove Flora's unfertilized eggs werehaploid (n) and doubled their chromosomes later to becomediploid (2n) (by being fertilized by apolar body, or by chromosome duplication withoutcell division), rather than by her laying diploid eggs by one of themeiosis reduction-divisions in herovaries failing. When a female Komodo dragon (with ZW sex chromosomes) reproduces in this manner, she provides her progeny with only one chromosome from each of her pairs of chromosomes, including only one of her two sex chromosomes. This single set of chromosomes is duplicated in the egg, which develops parthenogenetically. Eggs receiving a Zchromosome become ZZ (male); those receiving a W chromosome become WW and fail to develop,[77][78] meaning that only males are produced by parthenogenesis in this species.
Humans handling a komodo dragon
It has been hypothesised that this reproductive adaptation allows a single female to enter an isolatedecological niche (such as an island) and byparthenogenesis produce male offspring, thereby establishing a sexually reproducing population (via reproduction with her offspring that can result in both male and female young).[77] Despite the advantages of such an adaptation, zoos are cautioned that parthenogenesis may be detrimental to genetic diversity.[79]
Encounters with humans
Attacks on humans are rare, but Komodo dragons have been responsible for several human fatalities, both in the wild and in captivity. According to data fromKomodo National Park spanning a 38-year period between 1974 and 2012, there were 24 reported attacks on humans, five of them fatal. Most of the victims were local villagers living around the national park.[80]
The Komodo dragon is classified by theIUCN asEndangered and is listed on theIUCN Red List.[2] The species' sensitivity to natural and human-made threats has long been recognized by conservationists, zoological societies, and the Indonesian government.Komodo National Park was founded in 1980 to protect Komodo dragon populations on islands including Komodo, Rinca, and Padar.[81] Later, the Wae Wuul and Wolo Tado Reserves were opened on Flores to aid Komodo dragon conservation.[13]
Komodo dragons generally avoid encounters with humans. Juveniles are very shy and will flee quickly into a hideout if a human comes closer than about 100 metres (330 ft). Older animals will also retreat from humans from a shorter distance away. If cornered, they may react aggressively by gaping their mouth, hissing, and swinging their tail. If they are disturbed further, they may attack and bite. Although there are anecdotes of unprovoked Komodo dragons attacking or preying on humans, most of these reports are either not reputable or have subsequently been interpreted as defensive bites. Only very few cases are truly the result of unprovoked attacks by atypical individuals who lost their fear of humans.[48]
Volcanic activity, earthquakes, loss of habitat, fire,[29][13] tourism, loss of prey due topoaching, and illegal poaching of the dragons themselves have all contributed to the vulnerable status of the Komodo dragon. A major future threat to the species isclimate change via botharidification andsea level rise, which can affect the low-lying habitats and valleys that the Komodo dragon depends on, as Komodo dragons do not range into the higher-altitude regions of the islands they inhabit. Based on projections, climate change will lead to a decline in suitable habitat of 8.4%, 30.2%, or 71% by 2050 depending on theclimate change scenario. Without effective conservation actions, populations on Flores are extirpated in all scenarios, while in the more extreme scenarios, only the populations on Komodo and Rinca persist in highly reduced numbers. Rapidclimate change mitigation is crucial for conserving the species in the wild.[2][82] Other scientists have disputed the conclusions about the effects of climate change on Komodo dragon populations.[83]
Under Appendix I ofCITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species), commercial international trade of Komodo dragon skins or specimens is prohibited.[84][85] Despite this, there are occasional reports of illegal attempts to trade in live Komodo dragons. The most recent attempt was in March 2019, when Indonesian police in theEast Java city ofSurabaya reported that a criminal network had been caught trying to smuggle 41 young Komodo dragons out of Indonesia. The plan was said to include shipping the animals to several other countries in Southeast Asia through Singapore. It was hoped that the animals could be sold for up to 500 millionrupiah (around US$35,000) each.[86] It was believed that the Komodo dragons had been smuggled out ofEast Nusa Tenggara province through the port atEnde in central Flores.[87]
In 2013, the total population of Komodo dragons in the wild was assessed as 3,222 individuals, declining to 3,092 in 2014 and 3,014 in 2015. Populations remained relatively stable on the bigger islands (Komodo and Rinca), but decreased on smaller islands, such as Nusa Kode and Gili Motang, likely due to diminishing prey availability.[88] OnPadar, a former population of Komodo dragons has recently becomeextirpated, of which the last individuals were seen in 1975.[89] It is widely assumed that the Komodo dragon died out on Padar following a major decline of populations of largeungulate prey, for which poaching was most likely responsible.[90]
Komodo dragons have long been sought-after zoo attractions, where their size and reputation make them popular exhibits. They are, however, rare in zoos because they are susceptible to infection and parasitic disease if captured from the wild, and do not readily reproduce in captivity.[15] A pair of Komodo dragons was displayed at theBronx Zoo in New York in September 1926, but they only lasted a couple of months, dying in October and November 1926.[91] The first Komodo dragons were displayed atLondon Zoo in 1927. A Komodo dragon was exhibited in 1934 in the United States at theNational Zoo in Washington, D.C., but it lived for only two years. More attempts to exhibit Komodo dragons were made, but the lifespan of the animals in captivity at the time proved very short, averaging five years in the National Zoological Park. Studies were done by Walter Auffenberg, which were documented in his bookThe Behavioral Ecology of the Komodo Monitor, eventually allowing for more successful management and breeding of the dragons in captivity.[12]Surabaya Zoo in Indonesia has been breeding Komodo dragons since 1990 and had 134 dragons in 2022, the largest collection outside its natural habitat.[92] As of May 2009, there were 35 North American, 13 European, one Singaporean, two African, and two Australian institutions which housed captive Komodo dragons.[93] In 2016, four Komodo dragons were transferred from Bronx zoo toMadras Crocodile Bank Trust in India.[94]
A variety of behaviors have been observed from captive specimens. Most individuals become relatively tame within a short time,[95][96] and are capable of recognising individual humans and discriminating between familiar and unfamiliar keepers.[97] Komodo dragons have also been observed to engage in play with a variety of objects, including shovels, cans, plastic rings, and shoes. This behavior does not seem to be "food-motivated predatory behavior".[44][5][98]
Even seemingly docile dragons may become unpredictably aggressive, especially when the animal's territory is invaded by someone unfamiliar. In June 2001, a Komodo dragon seriously injuredPhil Bronstein, the then-husband of actressSharon Stone, when he entered its enclosure at theLos Angeles Zoo after being invited in by its keeper. Bronstein was bitten on his bare foot, as the keeper had told him to take off his white shoes and socks, which the keeper stated could potentially excite the Komodo dragon as they were the same colour as the white rats the zoo fed the dragon.[99][100] Although he survived, Bronstein needed to have several tendons in his foot reattached surgically.[101]
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