| Candlenut | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Candlenut foliage, flowers, and nut | |
Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Clade: | Tracheophytes |
| Clade: | Angiosperms |
| Clade: | Eudicots |
| Clade: | Rosids |
| Order: | Malpighiales |
| Family: | Euphorbiaceae |
| Genus: | Aleurites |
| Species: | A. moluccanus |
| Binomial name | |
| Aleurites moluccanus | |
| Synonyms | |
Aleurites javanicusGand. | |
Aleurites moluccanus, thecandlenut, is aflowering tree in the spurge family,Euphorbiaceae. It grows up to 30 m (98 ft) tall. It was first described byCarl Linnaeus in 1753. Thespecies epithet means "from the Moluccas".
Its habitats include both Old and New World tropical rainforests and gallery forest. Although the nuts are mildly toxic when raw, they are of some culinary interest, with other parts of the plant having various regional uses.
The candlenut grows to a height of up to 30 m (98 ft), with wide spreading or pendulous branches. Theleaves are pale green,simple, andovate or heart-shaped on mature shoots, but may be three-, five-, or seven-lobed on saplings.[5] They are up to 20 cm (8 in) long and 13 cm (5 in) wide and young leaves are densely clothed in rusty or cream stellate hairs.Petioles measure up to 12.5 cm (5 in) long andstipules about 5 mm (1⁄4 in).[6]
Flowers are small—male flowers measure around 5 mm in diameter, female flowers about 9 mm.[6]
The fruit is adrupe about4–6 cm (1+1⁄2–2+1⁄4 in) in diameter with one or two lobes; each lobe has a single soft, white, oily, kernel contained within a hard shell which is about2 cm (3⁄4 in) in diameter.[5] The kernel is the source ofcandlenut oil.[7]
This plant was first described byCarl Linnaeus in hisSpecies Plantarum (1753) asJatropha moluccana.[8][9] It was renamed asAleurites moluccana byCarl Ludwig Willdenow in an 1805 edition ofSpecies Plantarum,[3][10] but the ending was corrected to match the gender of the Latin genusAleurites moluccanus.
While there are many online references to the name "Aleurites moluccana", this is not a name accepted by botanic authorities such as theInternational Plant Names Index or theGermplasm Resources Information Network.
The genus name derives from theAncient Greekἄλευρον (áleuron), meaning "flour" or "meal", and refers to the new growth which appears to be dusted with flour. Thespecies epithet means "from the Moluccas".[5]
Its native range is impossible to establish precisely because of early spread by humans, and the tree is now distributed throughout theNew andOld World tropics.
The candlenut was first domesticated on the islands of Southeast Asia. Remains of harvested candlenuts have been recovered from archaeological sites inTimor andMorotai in eastern Indonesia, dated to around 13,000 and 11,000BP, respectively.[11] Archaeological evidence of candlenut cultivation is also found inNeolithic sites of theToalean culture in southernSulawesi dated to around 3,700 to 2,300 BP.[12][13] Candlenuts were widely introduced into thePacific islands by earlyAustronesian voyagers and became naturalized to high volcanic islands.[14][15][16]
A. moluccanus grows in tropical rainforests and gallery forests. It is a very fast-growing tree and often appears in disturbed rainforest. In Australia the altitudinal range is from sea level to 800 m (2,600 ft).[6]
In Australia the seeds are eaten by rodents, in particular thegiant white-tailed rat. The broken shells of the fruits are often found underneath the trees.[6]
The larvae of thecoleopteranAgrianome fairmairei feed on dead candlenut wood,[17] and are considered a delicacy inNew Caledonia.[18]
Because the seeds containsaponin,phorbol, andtoxalbumins they are mildly toxic when raw.[19][20] However, heat treatment reduces the toxicity of the protein component.[20] Thekukui seed oil has no known toxicity and is not an irritant, even to the eyes.[21][better source needed]
Both the nut and the oil that can be extracted from it are used. In Indonesia, the oil (candlenut oil) can often be found in hair care products.[22] While mildly toxic when raw,[19] the nut is appreciated in many cultures once cooked or toasted. InIndonesian andMalaysian cuisine, it is commonly used in curries,[23] and on the Indonesian island ofJava, it is used to make a thick sauce that is eaten with vegetables and rice.[24]
Wealthier members among theBatak people have their coffins (Karo:pelangkah) made from the wood ofAleurites moluccanus, carved in the shape of a boat whose bow is decorated with the carved head of ahornbill, a horse, or amythical beast known as asinga.[citation needed]
In the Philippines, the fruit and tree are traditionally known aslumbang,[25] after whichLumban, a lakeshore town inLaguna province, is named. Before the intrusion of non-native species, it was frequently used as a property-line manager, because its silvery underleaf makes the tree easy to distinguish from a distance.[26]
In the state ofSabah,Malaysian Borneo, the Dusun tribes call the fruitgodou and use it in tattoo-making as an optional ingredient for the ink.[27]
A Hawaiian condiment known asʻinamona is made from roastedkukui (candlenuts) mixed into a paste with salt.ʻInamona is a key ingredient in traditional Hawaiianpoke.[28]
Inancient Hawaiʻi,kukui nuts were burned to provide light. The nuts were strung in a row on a palm leaf midrib, lit on one end, and burned one by one every fifteen minutes or so. This led to their use as a measure of time. Hawaiians extracted the oil from the nut and burned it in a stone oil lamp called akukui hele po (light, darkness goes) with a wick made ofkapa cloth.[29]
Hawaiians had many other uses for the tree, includingleis from the shells, leaves, and flowers; ink for tattoos from charred nuts; avarnish with the oil; and fishermen would chew the nuts and spit them on the water to break thesurface tension and remove reflections, giving them greater underwater visibility. A red-brown dye made from the inner bark was used onkapa andaho (Touchardia latifolia cordage). A coating ofkukui oil helped preserveʻupena (fishing nets).[29] Thenohona waʻa (seats) andpale (gunwales) ofwaʻa (outrigger canoes) were made from the wood.[30] The trunk was sometimes used to make smaller canoes used for fishing.[31]
As recently as 1993 on the outlying islands of the kingdom of Tonga, candlenuts were chewed into sweet-scentedemollient used during a traditionalfunerary ritual. They were used for making various sweet-smelling oils for the skin.[32]
In Australia,Aboriginal Australians used them for a variety of similar purposes.[33][34][35]
In Fiji, this nut is calledsikeci and its oil is used in cosmetic products.[36]
InFlores nearEnde, it is calledkéloré and used as amordant for dyes withMorinda citrifolia (mengkudu).[37]
On the island ofRapa Iti in theAustral Islands, fish hooks were carved from the endocarp of the candlenut as a result of lacking other suitable material. These fish hooks were quite small and were used for catching certain species of fish, such asLeptoscarus vaigiensis (Komokomo) andStegastes fasciolatus (Nganga).[38]
The plant is also known by the common namescandleberry,Indian walnut,kemiri,varnish tree,nuez de la India,buah keras,godou,kukui nut tree, andrata kekuna.
TheProto-Austronesian word for candlenut is reconstructed as*kamiri, with moderncognates includingHanunó'o,Iban, andSundanesemuncang;Javanese andMalaykemiri;[39] andTetunkamii, however theOceanian words for candlenut is believed to be derived fromProto-Austronesian*CuSuR which becameProto-Malayo-Polynesian*tuhuR, originally meaning "string together, as beads", referring to the construction of the candlenut torches. It becameProto-Eastern-Malayo-Polynesian andProto-Oceanic*tuRi which is thenreduplicated. Modern cognates includingFijian,Tongan,Rarotongan, andNiuetui-tui; andHawaiiankui-kui orkukui.[40]
The Malay language in both[clarification needed] has another name given to the nut which isbuah keras (literally "hard fruit").[41][23]
In Uganda, the seed is referred to askabakanjagala, meaning "theking loves me".[42]
InMaui, thekukui is a symbol of enlightenment, protection, and peace.[43]Kamapuaʻa, the hog-man fertility demigod, was said to be able to transform into akukui tree.[44] One of the legends told of Kamapuaʻa: one day, a man beat his wife to death and buried her beneath Kamapuaʻa while he was in tree form.[citation needed]Kukui was named thestate tree of Hawaii on 1 May 1959[45] due to its multitude of uses.[46] It also represents the island ofMolokaʻi, whose symbolic color is the silvery green of thekukui leaf.[citation needed]
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