Sultanate of Kashmir | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1320–1323 1339–1589 | |||||||||||
 | |||||||||||
| Motto: نرجو أن يتم الحفاظ عليها من الدمار(Arabic) (lit. May she be preserved from destruction)[3] | |||||||||||
 Kashmir Sultanate in 1525. (Including the hill states ofGilgit andJammu,Maqpon Kingdom andMaryul Kingdom as tributary states) | |||||||||||
| Status | Sultanate | ||||||||||
| Capital | Srinagar(1320–1323; 1339–1343; 1354–1470; 1472–1529; 1530–1586) Sikandarpur(1470–1472) Naushahra(1529–1530) Chandrakot(1586–1587) Varmul(1587–1588) Suyyapur(1586–1588) no centralised capital(1588–1589) | ||||||||||
| Largest city | Srinagar | ||||||||||
| Common languages | Sanskrit (widely used in administration, court and government until the end of 14th century) Persian (widely used in administration, court and government) Kashmiri (native language, given official status later on) Dardic languages Arabic (religious) | ||||||||||
| Religion | State religion:Sunni Islam (Shafi'i andHanafi) (1320–1561) Shi'a Islam (Imamiyya) (1561–1589) Minority religions: Hinduism Buddhism | ||||||||||
| Demonym(s) | Kashmiri | ||||||||||
| Government | Unitarycentralizedabsolute monarchy | ||||||||||
| Sultan | |||||||||||
• 1320–1323(first) | Sadr'ud-Din Shah | ||||||||||
• 1586–1589(last) | Yakub Shah Chak | ||||||||||
| Wazir | |||||||||||
• 1320–1323(first) | Tukka | ||||||||||
• 1586–1589(last) | Nazuk Bhat | ||||||||||
| Legislature | Durbar | ||||||||||
• House | Divan | ||||||||||
| Historical era | Middle Ages | ||||||||||
• Conversion ofRinchan Shah | December 1320 | ||||||||||
• Lohara Interruption | 1323–1339 | ||||||||||
| 1338–1339 | |||||||||||
| December 1419–July 1420 | |||||||||||
| 1527–1531 | |||||||||||
• Kashgar–Kashmir War | January–May 1533 | ||||||||||
| 22 November 1540–October 1551 | |||||||||||
• Battle of Vahator | 13 August 1541 | ||||||||||
• Restoration | October 1551 | ||||||||||
| 20 December 1585–8 August 1589 | |||||||||||
| 10 October 1586 | |||||||||||
• Fall ofSrinagar | 14 October 1586 | ||||||||||
| Area | |||||||||||
| 1342 | 222,236 km2 (85,806 sq mi) | ||||||||||
| 1389 | 250,000 km2 (97,000 sq mi) | ||||||||||
| Population | |||||||||||
• 1578 | 280,000 | ||||||||||
| Currency | Gold Dinar,Silver Sasnu,Copper Punchshi,Bronze Kasera | ||||||||||
| |||||||||||
TheKashmir Sultanate,[b] historically Latinised as theSultanate of Cashmere and officially known as theState of Kashmir, was amedieval kingdom established in the early 14th century, primarily in theKashmir Valley, found in the northern part of theIndian subcontinent. The Sultanate was founded byRinchan Shah, aLadakhi noble who converted from Buddhism to Islam. The Sultanate was briefly interrupted by theLoharas untilShah Mir, a councillor of Rinchan,overthrew the Loharas and started hisown dynasty. The Shah Mirs ruled from 1339 until they were deposed by theChak warlords and nobles in 1561. The Chaks continued to rule the Sultanate until theMughal conquest in 1586 and their surrender in 1589.
The Kashmir Sultanate was a Muslim monarchy comprisingKashmiri,Turco–Persian,Kohistani,Dardic, &Ladakhi elites. A Ladakhi Buddhist, Rinchan Bhoti, converted to Islam and served as the first Sultan. He was followed by two prominent dynasties: TheShah Mirs and theChaks. A Baihaqi Sayyid,Mubarak Baihaqi, briefly ruled over Sultanate after overthrowingYousuf Chak in 1579. Due to its diversity, the kingdom lived and worked by the principles ofKashmiriyat, which existed harmoniously within the cultural and religious pluralism of the Sultanate. AlthoughSanskrit andPersian were preferred as the official, diplomatic, court, and state language,Kashmiri still had a large impact on social and communal work, later being granted official status. The economical centre, as well as the vital mint city of the Sultanate,Srinagar, served as the capital for the majority of its lifespan while the diverse city ofVarmul, the highly rich and cultivated land ofSuyyapur, the hilly areas ofAnantnag, and the surrounding valleys ofNeelum were the notable commercial and residential districts. The Sultanate carried out major trading relations, having establishments inBihar,Tibet,Nepal,Peking,Bhutan,Khurasan, andTurkestan, whereasPunjab andBengal were considered her greatest trading and industrial partners. Besides theDelhi Sultanate, Kashmir, along withBengal,Gujarat, andSindh, were considered strong political and martial allies, even interfering in one another's internal problems.
During the Sultanate era, the Valley was influenced by various orders ofSufism andMysticism. TheSuhrawardiyya,Kubrawiya,Rishi, andNurbakhshiya orders were formally adopted and regulated by the Sultans during their reign. A form of peaceful culture evolved around theKashmiri Pandits andMuslims following the leadership and teachings ofLal Ded,Nund Rishi,Habba Khatun, Yaqub Ganai and, Habibullah Ganai. With the beginning of the Muslim epoch,Indo-Islamic architecture was observed alongsideKashmiri Art evolving into an Islamic-Kashmiri style of infrastructure and designing. This style can still be seen in the old mahalas ofSrinagar.
Numerous attempts had been made to conquer Kashmir, first by theArabs in the 7th and 8th century, and then by theTurks in the 11th century,[4] but it was not until the reigns ofMahmud of Ghazni andMuhammad of Ghor that Kashmir faced serious threats of invasion.[5][6] It was at this time thatTajik traders entered Kashmir and were permitted to serve in theLohara army.[7] With the Hindu emperors weakened, Kashmir became a subject to theMongol invasions in the 13th century.[8] Unable to fend off the invasions this time, Kashmir became a Mongol dependency some time after 1235.[9] In 1320, a Mongol commander, Zulju, with an army of Qara'unas, entered Kashmir and, after perpetrating all types of atrocities and violence,[10][8] left the Valley with loot stolen from the residents. As Emperor Suhadeva fled toKishtwar, the Valley passed on to the hands of local chiefs who asserted independence.[11][12] The most prominent of them were Ramacandra, the commander-in-chief of Suhadeva, andRinchan Bhoti, aLadakhiBuddhist noble, who leftLadakh after his father, a Ladakhi chief, was killed by theBaltis.[13] Rinchan, who upon killing Ramacandra in a surprise attack, found none stronger than himself, ascended the throne as Rinchan Shah.[14]
The first challenge faced by Rinchan was to gain the trust of the public and of the nobles.[15] To manage this, he released Ramacandra's son, Rawancandra, and his family, granting him some jagirs and the title ofRaina (Lord). He also appointed him hisMir Bakhshi (Commander-in-Chief) and married his sister,Kota Rani, who had previously been the Empress consort of Suhadeva.[16][17] After resolving this matter, Rinchan faced Suhadeva, who had returned to the Valley after Zulju's departure. He attempted to turn the people against Rinchan, however he was repulsed by the people, for whom the memory of his betrayal remained fresh.[18][19] Soon after these events, the Lavanyas, a feudal tribe, challenged Rinchan but were defeated and forced to acknowledge him.[20]
The Emperor always had a council of cultured men and artisans in his court, along with Muslim scholars and Hindu and Buddhist priests.[21] With an elusive yet sharp mind, Rinchan later on in the same year, at the hands ofBulbul Shah, embraced Islam and adopted the title of Sultan Sadr'ud-Din, becoming the first Sultan of Kashmir.[22][23] Rawancandra also accepted Islam and became a close associate of the Sultan.[24]Shah Mir also entered the government of the Sultan and was a trusted councillor of the Sultan.[25] He even appointed him as the tutor of his son, Haidar.[26][27] Sultan Sadr'ud-Din faced a surprise attack by Tukka, his former Vizier, and his followers. The preparators left a serious wound on the Sultan's head in between the struggle,[28] but he was rescued by his Vizier, Vyalaraja. The Sultan took the enemies by surprise and executed them. He also ripped open the wombs of their wives by the sword.[29]
Unfortunately, the wound on the Sultan's head proved fatal, and he died in 1323.[28] He was buried near the Masjid he had built in Srinagar. After the Sultan's demise, Udayanadeva, the brother of Suhadeva, was called back from Swat to claim the throne at the behest of Kota Rani, with the consent of Shah Mir and other nobles, as Haidar was still a minor.[30][25]
The rule of Udayanadeva lasted until his death in 1338, and he was succeeded by his wife, Kota Rani.[31][32] Shah Mir, in the meantime, strengthened his position in the cabinet of Udayanadeva.[33][25] Kota Rani appointed Bhatta Bhikshana, a powerful minister, as her Prime Minister, ignoring Shah Mir. She also moved her capital to Andarkot as Srinagar was, at that time, Shah Mir's stronghold.[34][35] This angered Shah Mir, who, at once, marched against her. At the outset ofthe war, he assassinated Bhikshana through a conspiracy and threatened Kota Rani to surrender and marry him.[36] Kota Rani, after seeing her troops and chiefs deserting her, acquiesced. Shah Mir married her at first, but seeing the support she had in the kingdom, he threw her and her children in prison while he himself ascended the throne as Sultan Shamsu'd-Din Shah.[37][38]
With the behest of the new rule, a new era, namely the Kashmiri era, replaced the old Laukika era established by theHindu Emperors.[39] Shamsu'd-Din set up Islamic roots in the early stages of the Sultanate,[33][40] appointing Muslim converts to major posts in the government.[41] After his death in 1342, the Sultanate passed on to Shamsu'd-Din's sons,Jamshid andAli Sher.[42][43]
Jamshid, being the eldest, ascended the throne in 1342 and adopted the title of Sultan Jamshid Shah.[44] Jamshid worked on the state affairs and infrastructure, constructing various towns and villages and helping the people who were displaced by the Zulju invasion.[45][46] Meanwhile, Ali Sher, in 1343, after a previously failed attempt, successfully usurped the throne and declared himself as Sultan, during Jamshid's absence in Kamraj.[44] Ali Sher took on the title of Sultan Alau'd-Din Shah. Alau'd-Din was a just and able ruler, bringing back the peasants who left Kashmir after the Zulju invasion and giving them shelter and bread.[47] He promulgated the first social and moral laws of the Sultanate, which helped not only the widows but the orphans as well.[47] He also defeated the Lavanyas, who rose back to prominence and reclaimed their land. After a reign of eleven years, Alau'd Din died in 1354 and was buried in his new town Alau'd-Dinpur.[48]
As a broad-minded intellectual,Shihab'ud-Din, in the first half of his tenure, took care of the Sultanate and brought stability to the social and integral structure of Kashmir.[49] Full of animation and efficiency, Shihab'ud-Din set out to conquer its neighbouring polities, aiming to expand and further glorify his state. Marching throughBaramulla, he first occupiedPakhli and went on to addSwat to his realm.[50] Next, he invaded the Khokhar-dominatedPothohar, which extended fromAttock toSialkot. His commander-in-chief (Mir Bakhshi), Malik Candra, on the other hand, subduedJammu,Kishtwar,Chamba, and otherhill states.[51] Occupying all the bordering states in the south, Shihab'ud-Din went on to defeat theDardic forces ofGilgit and the hill states of the north.Baltistan, under theMaqpons, andLadakh, under theMaryuls, were at that time tributary states ofMoghulistan andTibet, respectively.[51] Shihab'ud-Din, along with Malik Candra, faced theBaltis andKashgaris, defeating them easily and soundly.[51] He then moved towards Ladakh, beating the joint forces ofLadakhis and Tibetans.[51] After all these conquests, Shihab'ud-Din returned to Srinagar around 1370, seeking to live the rest of his life peacefully, however only a few years later, in 1373, he passed away due to a viral illness.[52]
Shihab'ud-Din's brother, Hindal, ascended the throne in 1373 as SultanQutbu'd-Din Shah.[53] Qutbu'd-Din defended his boundaries and lived most of his life as a "poet or a patron of learning."[53][54]Sayyid Ali Hamadani visited Kashmir in 1379 and was courteously welcomed by him. Hamadani stayed in Kashmir for three years, spreading hisKubrawiya teachings, which were widely accepted throughout Kashmir as the official order of the government.[55][56] Qutbu'd-Din was an old man when Shingara was born to him, who was appointed as the heir apparent just after his birth. Qutbu'd-Din died in 1389, and Shingara succeeded him as SultanSikandar Shah.[57]
Many Islamic scholars and preachers visited Kashmir in Sikandar's era, the most prominent one being Sayyid Muhammad Hamadani, the son of Sayyid Ali Hamadani. Hamadani stayed in Kashmir for nearly twelve years and proceeded on a pilgrimage toMecca.[58][59] Sikandar's era is remembered due to his interaction with theTurco-Mongol conqueror,Timur.[60] Sikandar was also involved in iconoclastic activities, side-lining and mistreating theKashmiri Pandits.[61][62][63] These activities were continued by his son and successorAli Shah, who, under the influence of his Wazir Saifuddin, forced the Pandits out of the Valley. Shahi Khan, the younger brother of Ali Shah, served as the Wazir of Ali Shah by defeating Hamsabhatta,[64] but when Ali Shah, in 1418, left for Mecca for a pilgrimage, he gave Shahi Khan the authority. Shahi Khan, seeing the dire situation of the Sultanate, revolted and usurped the throne.[65] Ali Shah, with the help of his father-in-law and the Raja ofJammu, Bhim Dev, defeated Shahi Khan, which led to the start of acivil war between Shahi Khan and Ali Shah.[66] Shahi Khan, with help and support fromJasrat Khokhar andJam Fath, turned out victorious and ascended the throne as SultanZainu'l-Abidin in 1420.[67]
Major contributions to the development of the Sultanate were carried out during the reign of Zainu'l-Abidin.[68] Referred to as the "Akbar of Kashmir" by modern authors, Zainu'l-Abidin espoused secular motives, calling back the Pandits who left the Valley during the reign of his father and brother.[69] Temples, which were in a critical state, were repaired and restored.[70] Relations were improved with foreign countries such as:Bengal,Gujarat,Sindh, andPunjab, forming a mutual alliance with Kashmir.[71] Trade and agriculture were enhanced, education was encouraged, and religious harmony was established between the two communities (Muslims and Pandits),[72][73][74][69] which was later referred to asKashmiriyat. Zainu'l-Abidin was followed by a weak line of succession who were rather involved in their personal interests, rather than the needs of the Sultanate.[75]
After the reign ofHaidar Shah (1470–1472) andHasan Shah (1472–1484), the two sons of Zainu'l-Abidin, a power struggle started betweenFath Shah andMuhammad Shah.[76][77] One of the two factions, at times, was supported by the Mughals, while the other was backed by the nobles. Mughal commanders Kuchak Beg and Shaikh Ali Beg led an expedition underBabur to Kashmir in 1527, supporting Sikandar Shah II against Muhammad Shah.[78][79][80] Muhammad Shah, with the help of Lohar Magre and Kaji Chak, defeated the Mughals nearNaushahra, whereas Sikandar Shah was blinded and later died in prison.[79] The Mughals again marched onto Kashmir, withKamran Mirza as their commander in 1531. Even though Srinagar was sacked, Kaji Chak, along with his army, defeated and routed Kamran back to India.[81] Another attempt to annex Kashmir was carried out, this time by SultanSaid Khan of theYarkent Khanate. Said Khan dispatchedHaidar Dughlat, aChagatai Turco-Mongol military general, to Kashmir in 1533.[82] Despite early defeats, Kashmiris repelled and defeated Turco-Mongol forces, forcing them to sign a peace treaty that same year.[83]
Dughlat later took the service of Mughal emperorHumayun and attacked Kashmir again in November 1540.[84] Kashmir was formally annexed in December 1540, and coins were issued in the name of Humayun.[85][86] Sultan Nazuk Shah was set up on the throne as a puppet.[87] Kaji Chak and Regi Chak, the only two generals who were fighting the Mughals, and also fought in theBattle of Vahator on 13 August 1541, died in 1544 and 1546 respectively.[88] This system was regulated until 1551, when Kashmiris under Nazuk Shah and Daulat Chak hurdled their way through the Mughal defence and killed Dughlat in the chaos.[89] The Shah Mirs were greatly weakened in these invasions and were controlled by other families, mainly the Chaks.[90] Habib Shah (1557–1561) was dethroned byGhazi Shah Chak in 1561 and acquired the title of Muhammad Humayun, thus ending the rule of the Shah Mir dynasty.[91][92][93]
Mughals, underAkbar, were busysubduing southern andeastern India, allowing the Chaks to rule the Valley. Akbar, in 1579, set his eyes on Kashmir after seeing the political state of the Sultanate divided betweenYousuf Chak,Sayyid Mubarak andLohar Chak.[94] From 1581 till 1585, Akbar struggled to force Yousuf to ratify his superiority and pay a visit to his court inFatehpur Sikri.[95] All these efforts were in vain, and as a last resort, Akbar sent an army of around 5000 underRaja Bhagwant Das in late 1585.[96] Bhagwant Das convinced Yousuf to surrender and sign a treaty with him, which stated that Yousuf would be reinstated as the Sultan while the forces were to be withdrawn,[97] but when he was taken to Akbar, he was immediately imprisoned.[98]
Kashmiris choseYakub Chak, Yousuf's son, as their Sultan in 1586 and continued their struggle.[99] Yakub Chak fled to Kishtwar when the Mughals attacked Kashmir again, and was temporarily replaced byShams Chak, Yousuf's second cousin.[100] In Yakub's absence, the Mughals, now under a new commander,Qasim Khan, and Kashmiris, under Shams Chak, faced each other in theBattle of Hastivanj.[101] The battle ended in Qasim's favor and the Mughal rule was formally instigated on 14 October 1586 while Shams and the Kashmiris were soundly defeated.[102] This came as a shock to Yakub, who joined forces with Shams and fought the Mughals for three years until both of them surrendered in the year 1589.[103][104]
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Majority of the crowning rituals of the Sultanate were adopted from the previousLohara andUtpala kings. The crown was made an exclusive privilege of the Sultan to execute orders and bestow robes of honour on nobles, officials and tributaries.
While Kashmiri monarchy was uniformly laid throughout the Valley, Srinagar served as the most important station with the residence of the Sultan and the office of the Central Record Department. Royal forts at Suyyapur and Anantnag also became significant in later years of the Sultanate.
Even though the Sultan held the highest order of the Sultanate with executive, legislative and judicial powers in his hand, he still formed a central government to run his Sultanate effectively thus forming a council (Shura) of his most trusted ministers and appointed them accordingly.
The government of Srinagar was directly under the Sultan, while the two provinces, Kamraj and Maraj, were ruled by a Hākim (Governor) appointed directly by the Sultan. The Hākim was allowed to form his own government to maintain law and order, collect revenue, and dispense justice in the province.
Both the provinces were divided into different parganas (districts), each led by a Shiqdār (District Officer) who was allowed to form his own government. The district government was an exact replica of the provincial government under which the Qāzi/Muftī (Magistrate), Kotwāl (District Police Officer) and Muhtasib (District Ombudsman) exerted their powers.
The pargana itself was further divided into different villages and towns. Each village had a Patwāri (Accountant) who was not only required for accountancy but also to preside over the local government.
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The Kashmir Sultanate was renowned for its magnificent architecture and heritage, showcasing some of the finest examples ofKashmiri Art andIndo-Persian masterpieces. Some of the architectural projects commissioned by the Sultanate include:
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